TRISO and HALEU are the backbone of advanced nuclear technology. If America does not produce them, we will depend on fuel from countries we seek to outcompete.
To secure America's energy future, we must urgently build a domestic nuclear fuel supply chain focused on TRISO and HALEU.
Chapters:
I. Wake-Up Call: Lessons from Germany’s energy crisis
II. First Principles: What Are TRISO and HALEU?
III. America’s Dangerous Dependency: Current U.S. supply chain risks
IV. Germany's Lesson, America's Choice
V. Systems Thinking: Strategies for resilience.
V. Roadmap: Action steps for fuel sovereignty.
VI. The Roadmap: Building Fuel Sovereignty
VII. Why It Matters: Securing national security and innovation.
VIII. References & Data Sources
I. The Wake-Up Call: Lessons from Germany’s energy crisis
In 2022, Russia's invasion of Ukraine triggered a global energy panic. For Germany, the crisis was not just geopolitical—it was existential. Germany had shut down its nuclear reactors, relied heavily on Russian gas, and depended on the Nord Stream pipeline. That gamble collapsed, leading to factory slowdowns and skyrocketing energy prices. This dependency became a vulnerability.
Now, America faces a similar dilemma—not with gas but nuclear fuel. The next generation of clean energy will be powered by two advanced fuels: TRISO and HALEU. Currently, 95-97% of the world's HALEU supply comes from Russia.
Figure 1 – Russia produces ~96% of global HALEU; U.S. production remains limited to pilot capacity. Without domestic enrichment, advanced reactors cannot scale.
Source: Adapted from Nuclear Innovation Alliance, DOE, and Centrus Energy. (2024)
II. First Principles: What Are TRISO and HALEU?
Figure 2 – Most Gen IV reactor designs require HALEU; only a few, like pebble bed reactors, require TRISO fuel. Source: Adapted from DOE & Gen IV International Forum.
1. HALEU (High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium)
Uranium enriched to 5–20% U-235, compared to approximately 3–5% in conventional nuclear fuel. HALEU enables smaller, longer-lasting reactors and is required by nearly all next-generation (Gen IV) reactors.
2. TRISO (Tri-structural Isotropic Fuel)
Tiny spherical fuel pellets are coated in three protective layers (carbon and ceramic). TRISO can withstand extreme temperatures (greater than 1600°C) and contains radiation even in failure scenarios. It cannot melt down, making it one of the safest fuels available—ideal for microreactors, space power systems, and military energy platforms. TRISO uses HALEU as its fuel core, so you cannot build one without the other.
III. America's Dangerous Dependency: Current U.S. supply chain risks
TRISO and HALEU are the backbone of advanced nuclear technology. If America does not produce them, we risk losing the nuclear century before it begins, becoming dependent on fuel from countries we seek to outcompete.
In 2022, Russia's invasion of Ukraine exposed Germany’s vulnerability due to energy dependency. America faces a similar risk, not from gas but nuclear fuel. TRISO and HALEU are essential to powering next-generation nuclear reactors, yet 95-97% of the global HALEU supply currently comes from Russia.
HALEU, uranium enriched between 5% and 20%, enables efficient, compact reactors, while TRISO fuel’s robust safety profile makes it ideal for advanced, secure energy systems. Importantly, TRISO fuel requires HALEU as its core—one cannot exist without the other.
America’s current nuclear fuel supply chain is dangerously fragile, with limited domestic capabilities in uranium mining, conversion, enrichment, and TRISO fabrication. To address this vulnerability, we must urgently expand domestic infrastructure:
Reopen uranium mines and expand conversion facilities.
Accelerate HALEU enrichment capacity beyond the Centrus startup.
Scale TRISO fuel fabrication from pilot projects to full industrial production.
Use government contracts (DoD, DOE, NASA) to guarantee stable demand, prioritizing TRISO and HALEU as strategic national resources.
If we act decisively now, scaling TRISO and HALEU production will stimulate significant economic growth, foster innovation, and strengthen national security. Delaying action risks surrendering global leadership in nuclear energy, compromising our energy independence, economic vitality, and strategic autonomy.
IV. Germany's Lesson, America's Choice
Germany made a critical error by believing it could secure its energy future through external purchases. In a misguided attempt to appease public sentiment, it turned away from nuclear power and became dependent on natural gas from an unfriendly nation. We cannot afford to make the same mistake in America.
Energy is essential for freedom, and we must control our own resources. Germany's crisis highlights that true freedom requires energy independence. We are at a pivotal moment—let's build a comprehensive domestic supply chain for TRISO and HALEU to secure our energy future and national destiny. Despite leading in advanced reactor design, the U.S. currently lacks a strong supply chain for TRISO and HALEU. It’s time to reclaim our energy sovereignty.
Here's the current state:
Supply Chain Weak Points:
- Uranium Mining: Most U.S. mines are idle or underfunded.
- Conversion: Only one plant (ConverDyn) is operational.
- Enrichment: The only HALEU enrichment project (Centrus) is still in startup.
- TRISO Fabrication: There are limited pilot lines and no full-scale factories.
This is a brittle system with a single point of failure: Russia.
V. Systems Thinking: Strategies for resilience
Let's use some engineering mental models to chart a path forward:
1. Bottleneck Principle
Our weakest link—HALEU enrichment—holds back the entire system. Without HALEU, there is no TRISO; without TRISO, there are no new reactors.
2. Inversion Thinking
Ask: What if Russia cuts us off tomorrow? If the answer is "we're screwed," then we must reverse-engineer a scenario where we aren't.
3. Second-Order Effects
Solving this issue isn't just about fuel; it enables:
- Resilient energy for AI data centers and off-grid communities.
- Power for space missions and lunar outposts.
- Clean, secure energy for military installations.
VI. The Roadmap: Building Fuel Sovereignty
🔔 DOE Announcement: HALEU Distribution Begins
America just took a significant step toward energy independence.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has officially begun distributing HALEU (High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium) to U.S. advanced reactor developers. This isn’t just a fuel shipment—it’s igniting a new energy era.
From domestic manufacturing to defense and space innovation, HALEU unlocks the future of compact, high-performance nuclear reactors. It reduces reliance on foreign supply chains and strengthens American leadership in clean energy.
The diverse, skilled, and focused workforce powering this transformation is building more than fuel. They’re building the foundation for energy resilience, industrial revival, and technological sovereignty.
🔗 https://www.energy.gov/articles/us-department-energy-distribute-first-amounts-haleu-us-advanced-reactor-developers
The nuclear flywheel is turning.
Figure 3 – Current U.S. nuclear fuel infrastructure is significantly underbuilt compared to national security and energy independence goals. Source: U.S. DOE, GAO Report 2023.
Figure 3 – The nuclear fuel supply chain bottleneck: Without domestic conversion and fuel fabrication capacity, the path from uranium to clean microreactor power is blocked.
Source: Adapted from General Matter, DOE Fuel Cycle Strategy Brief (2024).
1. What to Build
Uranium Mining | Reopen U.S. uranium mines in Wyoming, Utah, and Texas.
Conversion - Expand UF6 (uranium hexafluoride) conversion capacity.
Enrichment - Scale HALEU enrichment—accelerate Centrus and fund two to three more facilities.
TRISO Fuel - Turn pilot lines into full-scale fuel fabrication factories: fund workforce and tooling.
Market Design - Utilize DoD, DOE, and NASA contracts to guarantee long-term demand. Treat TRISO and HALEU as strategic national priorities, similar to semiconductors.
💡 General Matter: A New Chapter in American Enrichment
General Matter has officially entered the game. Backed by Founders Fund and led by talent from SpaceX, Tesla, Anduril, the DoD, and national labs, they are launching the first private effort in decades to enrich uranium for the U.S.
“Nothing gets made if fuel isn’t made. America’s ambitions, from manufacturing to AI, all require nuclear. It’s the only source of energy that is reliable, scalable, and clean. It’s not only our future but our present, powering almost half of our clean energy and roughly 20% of our grid today. But the US is forced to look abroad for our nuclear fuel. Despite pioneering the technology, we’ve since outsourced enrichment to allies, competitors, and even adversaries. We didn’t just give up the lead. We’re no longer even in the game.”
Their mission is clear: revive America’s capacity to fuel itself. Enrichment is the key to unlocking everything downstream—TRISO, HALEU, microreactors, AI datacenters, defense infrastructure, and space ambitions.
I love this line from General Matters X post: “The raw material is embedded in the bedrock beneath our feet. America’s future is written in stone.”
From the bedrock of American soil to the core of the atom economy, General Matter is building what others walked away from.
🔗 https://generalmatter.com
🔗 https://x.com/generalmatter/status/1911775759301063144
It’s time to enrich again.
We don't need to start from scratch; we need builders, urgency, and investment.
💥 Recent Breakthrough: DOE Begins HALEU Distribution
In a landmark step toward energy sovereignty, the U.S. Department of Energy recently began distributing HALEU to five domestic advanced reactor developers, marking the first real ignition of the American HALEU supply chain.
This isn't just a fuel shipment—it's the start of a new era for American nuclear. By investing in domestic production, we're:
Reducing dependency on foreign suppliers like Russia
Supporting next-gen compact reactor innovation
Powering national defense and space applications
Reviving high-skill manufacturing jobs at home
As the DOE put it:
“The workforce powering this transformation—diverse, skilled, and focused—is building more than fuel. They’re building the foundation for energy resilience, industrial revival, and technological sovereignty.”
The nuclear flywheel is turning.
Made in America. Powered by HALEU. Driven by purpose.
Figure 4 – Domestic production of HALEU fuel is essential to restoring American leadership in advanced nuclear energy. Scaling enrichment and fabrication will power microreactors, defense platforms, and space missions.
Source: Generated image using DALL·E in ChatGPT in 2025
Read the full announcement → https://www.energy.gov/articles/us-department-energy-distribute-first-amounts-haleu-us-advanced-reactor-developers
VII. Why It Matters: Securing national security and innovation
Ensuring a robust domestic supply of advanced nuclear fuels is an economic opportunity and a vital national security concern. Our ability to maintain technological, environmental, and strategic independence depends on our proactive response to these significant vulnerabilities. It is essential to act now to safeguard our future by addressing these critical issues:
- Russia produces 97% of global HALEU.
- HALEU is required for every Gen IV reactor.
- TRISO needs HALEU and cannot be scaled without it.
- Microreactors, AI power, and space missions depend on this fuel.
Figure 5 – Projected HALEU demand outpaces U.S. production capacity through 2035 unless domestic investment accelerates. Source: DOE Fuel Cycle Projections, 2024.
If we do not act, we will lose the nuclear century before it begins.
Let's build the entire TRISO and HALEU supply chain—from mine to microreactor—right here in the U.S., not later, but now.
The time for passive observation has passed. We can shape our energy future and reclaim our strategic independence. By making decisive investments today, we can spark innovation, secure reliable energy sources, and inspire a generation to strengthen America's leadership in energy. Join the effort—support policies, initiatives, and build national champion companies committed to building our nuclear economy. Together, we can ensure America's energy sovereignty and confidently move toward a brighter, more secure future.
Freedom runs on fuel. Keep going!
“A nation that cannot control its energy cannot control its destiny.”
James Schlesinger, Former U.S. Secretary of Energy
Thank you for reading, and please share with the people you love.
VIII. References & Data Sources
1. U.S. Department of Energy – Office of Nuclear Energy.
“What is High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium (HALEU)?”
https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/what-high-assay-low-enriched-uranium-haleu
2. Nuclear Innovation Alliance. Catalyzing a Domestic Commercial HALEU Market. October 2022. https://nuclearinnovationalliance.org/sites/default/files/2022-10/Catalyzing%20a%20Domestic%20Commercial%20HALEU%20Market%20%282%29.pdf
3. U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) – Nuclear Fuel Cycle Overview.
https://www.nrc.gov/materials/fuel-cycle-fac.html
4. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) – HALEU Usage and Global Enrichment Statistics.
https://www.iaea.org/topics/uranium-enrichment
5. World Nuclear Association – Fuel Cycle Information and Advanced Reactor Designs.
https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/advanced-nuclear-power-reactors.aspx
6. Centrus Energy Corp. – Centrus Becomes First U.S. Licensed HALEU Production Facility
https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/centrus-becomes-first-us-licensed-haleu-production-facility
7. X-energy – TRISO-X Fuel Fabrication.
https://x-energy.com/fuel/triso-x
8. BWX Technologies – TRISO Fuel.
https://www.bwxt.com/sectors/nuclear-fuel/triso/
9. U.S. Department of Energy (2021) - Seeks Input on Creation of HALEU Availability Program https://www.energy.gov/ne/articles/us-department-energy-seeks-input-creation-haleu-availability-program
10. U.S. Department of Energy (2024) – DOE to Distribute First Amounts of HALEU to U.S. Advanced Reactor Developers.
https://www.energy.gov/articles/us-department-energy-distribute-first-amounts-haleu-us-advanced-reactor-developers
11. General Matter – Private uranium enrichment initiative by Founders Fund-backed startup.
https://generalmatter.com
https://x.com/generalmatter/status/1911775759301063144
12. U.S. Department of Defense – DoD to Build Project Pele Mobile Microreactor and Perform Demonstration at Idaho National Laboratory
https://www.defense.gov/News/Releases/Release/Article/2998460/dod-to-build-project-pele-mobile-microreactor-and-perform-demonstration-at-idah/
13. Congressional Research Service (CRS). "Nuclear Energy: Overview and Issues for Congress."
https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R45706
14. U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). “DOE Nuclear Fuel Cycle R&D”
https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-21-28
Presented by David T Phung
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