This report examines the critical period of Buddhist development during Saka rule (1st century BCE - 3rd century CE), the theological crisis that emerged, Nagarjuna's philosophical intervention, and the subsequent trajectory of Buddhism in India through its eventual decline.
Buddhism in the northwest had established a distinctive Greco-Buddhist synthesis, exemplified by the Milindapañha dialogues. Dominant schools included Dharmaguptaka, Sarvāstivāda, and Mahīśāsaka, focusing on systematic Abhidharma doctrines. Greco-Buddhist art in Gandhara represented this philosophical fusion visually.
Contrary to expectations about nomadic destruction, Saka rulers became significant Buddhist patrons. Key developments included:
Royal Support: Rulers like Kharahostes, Indravarma, and Vijayamitra actively donated reliquaries and constructed stupas
Institutional Continuity: Non-Mahāyāna traditions flourished with royal support while early Mahāyāna adoption began
Artistic Evolution: Transition from purely Greek forms toward synthesis incorporating North Indian and Iranian elements
Literary Preservation: Gāndhārī texts preserved important oral traditions in written form
During the transition to Kushan dominance, a critical theological crisis emerged within developing Mahāyāna Buddhism. Certain Mahāyāna proponents began incorporating Brahmanical concepts, most notably belief in Īśvara (a supreme creator god). This represented a fundamental departure from Buddhism's foundational non-theistic principles.
Some Mahāyāna teachers argued for a supreme divine being who created and controlled the universe
This directly contradicted core Buddhist teachings about dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda)
The syncretic religious environment of the Saka period facilitated this theological infiltration
Nagarjuna emerged as Buddhism's crucial defender against multiple corruptions, specifically targeting:
The Īśvara Heresy: Systematically refuted attempts to introduce creator-god concepts
Substantialist Views: Attacked Abhidharma schools positing intrinsic natures (svabhāva) in dharmas
Metaphysical Reification: Argued against permanent essences that reintroduced metaphysical thinking
Brahmanical Infiltration: Identified how Mahāyāna proponents allowed incompatible religious concepts
Scholastic Dogmatism: Confronted rigid positions moving away from practical liberation focus
Through works like Mūlamadhyamakakārikā and Vigrahavyāvartanī, Nagarjuna developed sophisticated deconstructive dialectic using the four-corner (catuṣkoṭi) framework to systematically dismantle all metaphysical positions, including theistic ones.
Nagarjuna's intervention preserved Buddhism's distinctive non-theistic character and established clear philosophical boundaries between Buddhism and Brahmanical traditions.
Nagarjuna's efforts achieved significant success in academic Buddhism:
Institutional Strengthening: Madhyamaka became central at institutions like Nālandā (5th-12th century CE)
Scholastic Continuity: Major universities like Vikramashila (8th-12th century CE) continued teaching Madhyamaka
Global Transmission: Buddhist scholars like Xuanzang and Atisha carried teachings to China and Tibet
Philosophical Development: Later thinkers like Dharmakīrti, Bhāviveka, and Candrakīrti built on Nagarjuna's foundations
Despite scholarly success, Buddhism faced gradual decline:
Reduced Mass Appeal: Buddhism remained primarily monastic/intellectual, losing laypeople by 8th-10th centuries
Limited Patronage: Royal support shifted toward Hindu traditions during Gupta era
Isolated Survival: Buddhist communities continued mainly in pockets like Himalayan regions
Loss of Royal Patronage: Gupta-era support shifted to Hindu traditions
Religious Absorption: Buddhist ideas merged into Hinduism; Buddha rebranded as Vishnu avatar
Bhakti Movement: Hindu devotional movements attracted popular imagination
Regional Conflicts: Islamic conquests (12th century) devastated centers like Nalanda
Institutional Isolation: Monasteries became land-rich but laity-detached
Academic Insularity: Buddhist universities declined in social relevance
Brahmanical Competition: Hindu philosophical schools like Advaita Vedānta won intellectual prestige
While traditional accounts describe Adi Śaṅkara defeating Buddhism in debates, historical evidence suggests:
These debates are largely legendary, recorded in 14th-century texts lacking contemporary verification
Śaṅkara's influence was retroactively amplified
Buddhism's decline was already underway due to broader socio-religious transformations
Śaṅkara integrated Buddhist metaphysical concepts into Advaita Vedānta rather than simply defeating them
The Saka period created both unprecedented opportunities for Buddhist growth and serious theological challenges. Nagarjuna's philosophical intervention successfully preserved Buddhism's non-theistic foundation and provided sophisticated tools for maintaining doctrinal integrity. His efforts achieved remarkable success in scholastic Buddhism, with Madhyamaka philosophy flourishing in major universities for centuries.
However, this intellectual revival did not translate into sustained social influence. Buddhism's gradual decline in India resulted from multiple factors: loss of royal patronage, absorption into Hinduism, internal institutional weaknesses, and external pressures including invasions. By the 13th century, Buddhism survived mainly in Tibet, Nepal, and remote Indian regions, having been largely marginalized in mainstream Indian society.
The period demonstrates how religious traditions must balance openness to cultural adaptation with vigilance against fundamental doctrinal corruption, while also maintaining vital connections with broader society beyond scholarly institutions.
