China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty.[399] Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[400][401] By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.[402] The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars to this day.[403]

After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[404] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,[405] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.

China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty.[399] Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[400][401] By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.[402] The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars to this day.[403]

After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[404] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations,[405] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.