From the original AxoloDAO article

The genus Ambystoma comprises approximately 32 species of salamanders distributed exclusively across North America. Mexico harbors 17 of these species, with 16 of them being endemic to the national territory (SEMARNAT, 2018; Parra-Olea et al., 2014). Despite possessing more than 50% of the global diversity of these neotenic amphibians and being home to the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum)—a species that has demonstrated therapeutic potential in regenerative medicine for treating spinal cord injuries, heart diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders (McCusker & Gardiner, 2011; Tanaka & Reddien, 2011)—Mexico contributes only 3.3% of global scientific publications on the genus and holds no patents. Paradoxically, the Mexican axolotl represents nearly half (48%) of all worldwide research on Ambystoma, establishing itself as a fundamental model organism for understanding tissue regeneration mechanisms. In response to this crisis of scientific underrepresentation, AxoloDAO emerges as a decentralized organization that, through digital public infrastructure, participatory governance, and onchain tools, seeks to revolutionize conservation and accelerate research on the genus Ambystoma in Mexico, positioning the country as a leader in the knowledge and sustainable use of its unique biological heritage.

The genus Ambystoma, endemic to North America, represents one of the most extraordinary evolutionary phenomena on the planet. These salamanders, distributed from southern Alaska to central Mexico, exhibit neoteny—the retention of larval characteristics in the adult state—and possess unprecedented regenerative capabilities unprecedented in vertebrates: complete regeneration of limbs, spinal cord (30% of neural tissue), cardiac tissue (up to 25% of the ventricle), and even portions of the brain without scar tissue formation (Reiß et al., 2015; Joven et al., 2019; Sousounis et al., 2014).

The medical importance of the Mexican axolotl has been extensively documented. Recent studies demonstrate that axolotl-derived growth factors (particularly FGF-8 and BMP-2) promote cardiac tissue regeneration in murine models (Godwin et al., 2017), while proteins identified in its regenerative process show potential for treating traumatic spinal cord injuries (Sabin et al., 2015). The global regenerative medicine market, driven in part by research on Ambystoma, is projected to reach $151.9 billion USD by 2026 (Grand View Research, 2024).

Mexico is the global epicenter of Ambystoma diversity, harboring 17 species of which 16 are endemic (Parra-Olea et al., 2014; SEMARNAT, 2018). These species inhabit an extraordinary variety of high-altitude aquatic ecosystems (1,800-3,500 meters above sea level) distributed primarily throughout the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt: from the ancient lakes of the Valley of Mexico (Xochimilco-Chalco system) to crater lakes such as Alchichica in Puebla (2,300 masl), Michoacán lake systems (Pátzcuaro at 2,035 masl, Zacapu at 1,980 masl), the Lerma-Santiago system in the State of Mexico, mountain streams in the Sierra de las Cruces (3,100 masl), and springs in the Sierra Madre Occidental from Chihuahua to Guerrero (Contreras et al., 2009; Zambrano et al., 2010).

Each species is adapted to unique ecological conditions: the Pátzcuaro salamander (A. dumerilii), the Alchichica axolotl (A. taylori), the Tarahumara axolotl (A. rosaceum) from pine-oak forests between 2,000-2,800 masl, or the stream axolotl (A. altamirani) from mountainous areas of central Mexico (Shaffer et al., 2008). These species are not only exceptional laboratory models but also cultural emblems deeply rooted in the Mesoamerican cosmovision, where Xólotl, the Mexica god of transformation and the underworld, took the form of the axolotl to escape sacrifice (Aguilar-Moreno, 2006; Zambrano et al., 2010).

However, the conservation reality is alarming: at least 11 Mexican species of Ambystoma are in categories of highest risk (9 Critically Endangered-CR, 2 Endangered-EN according to IUCN, 2024), evidencing a systemic crisis affecting fragile mountain freshwater ecosystems throughout the national territory.

Currently, the genus Ambystoma faces a devastating paradox while the genome of the Mexican axolotl, with 32 billion base pairs (10 times larger than the human genome) is intensively studied in laboratories in the United States, Germany, Austria, and Japan (Nowoshilow et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2019), Mexico—home to 53% of the world's Ambystoma biodiversity—holds zero patents and contributes only 3.3% of scientific articles about the genus. Wild populations continue collapsing, with A. mexicanum reduced to fewer than 1,000 individuals in Xochimilco, detectable only through environmental DNA analysis (Voss et al., 2015; Zambrano et al., 2010; SEMARNAT, 2018).

In response to this unprecedented crisis, AxoloDAO emerges: a decentralized organization dedicated to the conservation of the genus Ambystoma. AxoloDAO is based on a fundamental premise: conservation data must be managed as a shared, accessible, and verifiable public good for all ecosystem stakeholders.

To achieve this, AxoloDAO builds onchain digital public infrastructure that integrates the complete conservation cycle: it creates decentralized records of biological, environmental, and genetic data verifiable on Ethereum and the Superchain; preserves native germplasm in open repositories that safeguard genetic diversity; facilitates scientific collaboration among researchers, institutions, and communities without intermediaries; generates sustainable financing through impact contracts that release funds based on verifiable onchain metrics; restores critical habitats through local MicroDAOs with community governance; and educates on the ecological and cultural importance of these endemic species. This transparent and collaborative architecture allows Mexico to reclaim sovereignty over scientific knowledge of its unique biological heritage, establishing a replicable model of decentralized biobanks for endangered biodiversity conservation worldwide.

Bibliometric analysis of 5,805 publications on the genus Ambystoma during the 2015-2025 period reveals not only a dynamic field but one profoundly unequal in its geographic and thematic distribution. Worldwide research is dominated by genomics and genetics, which with 1,552 articles represents 26.7% of the total, followed by conservation studies with 1,054 publications (18.2%). This thematic distribution exposes an evident disconnect between the basic knowledge generated and its clinical application: while cell and molecular biology encompasses 1,002 articles (17.3%) and ecological studies total 920 (15.9%), regenerative medicine—the area with the greatest translational and economic potential—barely reaches 70 publications in the entire decade (1.2%), despite the documented therapeutic potential of these species (Tanaka & Reddien, 2011; McCusker & Gardiner, 2011).

The geographic distribution shows that the United States and Europe generate more than 80% of publications, while Mexico, the center of endemism for the genus with 17 species, contributes only 194 articles (3.3% of the total). This underrepresentation is particularly significant considering that A. mexicanum represents almost half (48%) of all global research on Ambystoma (2,783 of 5,805 publications), establishing itself as the dominant model organism (Bryant et al., 2017; Voss et al., 2015).

Temporal trends show an initial expansion followed by contraction: the peak production in 2016 (1,154 articles) coincided with advances in sequencing technologies (Nowoshilow et al., 2018), but production has declined to 548 articles in 2023. This deceleration reveals a severe geographic concentration of knowledge: more than 80% of studies are produced in the United States and Europe, consolidated in elite research groups such as the Ambystoma Genetic Stock Center (Kentucky), the Max Planck Institute (Dresden), and the Center for Regenerative Medicine (Vienna), which maintain reference colonies and dominate high-impact publications (Smith et al., 2019; Bryant et al., 2017). While these foreign institutions lead worldwide research on Mexican endemic species, Mexico—a country with 16 endemic species of the genus—contributes only 194 publications, evidencing an unprecedented intellectual extraction of its biological resources.

The hyperconcentration on A. mexicanum has two faces: on one hand, it consolidates the species as the model organism par excellence for regeneration studies with 2,787 publications; on the other, it means that the other 16 Mexican endemic species are virtually ignored by global science. This downward trend in total production suggests a possible exhaustion of traditional research lines or, more worryingly, a consolidation of the field in the hands of a few elite research groups that control both the animal colonies and specialized techniques.

The "post-2018 genomic explosion" following the publication of the complete genome of the Mexican axolotl perfectly illustrates Mexico's exclusion from the scientific development of its own resources. This scientific milestone, led by European and American institutions, generated hundreds of subsequent publications on gene regulation, developmental evolution, and regenerative medicine. However, no Mexican laboratory participated as a principal author in these fundamental studies, relegating the country to the role of passive observer of the scientific revolution based on its endemic biodiversity.

The paradox reaches its most critical expression in the analysis of the biotechnological patent landscape. Mexico, home to 53% of the world's Ambystoma biodiversity, maintains a record of zero patents while observing how other countries monetize knowledge derived from its endemic species. Of the 253 patents registered globally between 2015 and 2025, the United States dominates with 149 patents (59%), followed by WIPO (international patents) with 63 (25%), Europe with 30 (12%), and China with 8 (3%). This distribution does not reflect scientific capacity but rather an appropriation strategy: while other countries capture commercial value through patents, Mexico remains absent from technological development based on its own endemic species.

The science-to-patent conversion analysis exposes the systemic inefficiency of the global innovation ecosystem in Ambystoma. Regeneration, a central theme with 649 scientific articles, has generated only 8 patents (81:1 ratio), suggesting enormous missed opportunities or insurmountable barriers to technological translation. Genomics, with its 1,552 articles, produced 42 patents (37:1 ratio), representing the field where the most knowledge is being lost without intellectual property protection; while regenerative medicine shows the most efficient conversion with 70 articles generating 12 patents (6:1 ratio). These ratios reveal that regenerative medicine, although less studied, shows the highest efficiency, suggesting unexploited opportunities in tissue regeneration and genomics (Oviedo & Beane, 2009; Godwin et al., 2017; Tanaka & Ferretti, 2009).

Patent categories are distributed as: culture methods (102, 40.3%), cellular/tissue applications (76, 30%), gene sequences (42, 16.6%), proteins and growth factors (35, 13.8%), and direct therapeutic applications (12, 4.7%). This distribution indicates that technological control is concentrated in fundamental tools and methods rather than final applications, characteristic of emerging biotechnological fields (Tanaka & Ferretti, 2009). Temporal analysis shows a growing lag between scientific publication and patenting: the peak of articles occurred in 2016 while the peak of patents arrived in 2024, an 8-year gap that continues expanding, suggesting accelerated commercial consolidation of the field with approximately 50% of patents still active.

The Mexican paradox in Ambystoma research responds to structural factors that perpetuate the gap between endemic biodiversity and scientific production. Mexico has fewer than 5 specialized laboratories in developmental biology and regenerative medicine with capacity to maintain axolotl colonies, compared to more than 200 in the United States and Europe.

The scarcity of infrastructure and funding drives brain drain: specialized Mexican researchers systematically emigrate to foreign institutions where they find better conditions to develop their research. Regulatory barriers aggravate the problem—permits for research with endangered species can take more than 18 months—discouraging local projects. Additionally, there is a critical disconnect between academia and conservation, creating a gap between in situ conservation efforts and basic research that limits the application of scientific knowledge to the preservation of wild populations.

These deficiencies translate into multiple gaps. Geographically, Mexican research remains underrepresented while countries without native populations dominate studies, and threatened species other than A. mexicanum are practically ignored. Thematically, regenerative medicine remains underdeveloped (~70 articles in 10 years despite a market potential of $150 billion), there is severe imbalance between laboratory studies and fieldwork, and biotechnological applications remain unexplored. In application, the transfer of basic knowledge to clinical uses is nearly null, conservation remains disconnected from recent scientific evidence, and there is a complete absence of validation in Mexican preclinical models.

However, encouraging trends emerge in the last two years, although dominated by foreign institutions: regenerative medicine grows steadily focusing on growth factors; omics technologies are consolidating (single-cell sequencing and spatial transcriptomics); genomics is beginning to be applied to population management; comparative studies between axolotls and mammals in biomedicine are increasing; and there is intensifying emphasis on translating basic research into clinical applications.

Mexico is the global epicenter of Ambystoma diversity with 17 species (>50% of the global total), of which 16 are endemic—94% endemism—concentrated in high-mountain aquatic ecosystems (Shaffer et al., 2004; Contreras et al., 2009). According to the official categorization of NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, 15 of the 16 endemic species are in some risk category: one species Endangered (P), three Threatened (A), and eleven subject to Special Protection (Pr) (SEMARNAT, 2010). The IUCN Red List presents an even more critical panorama: at least 9 species are classified as Critically Endangered (CR)—A. mexicanum, A. dumerilii, A. leorae, A. taylori, A. andersoni, A. granulosum, A. lermaense, A. amblycephalum, and A. bombypellum—while two additional species are Endangered (EN)—A. altamirani and A. rivulare (IUCN, 2024). This categorization means that approximately 65% of Mexican endemic species face an extremely high or very high risk of extinction in the wild.

The threats are multifactorial and synergistic: (1) habitat degradation and loss through accelerated urbanization, desiccation of water bodies for human consumption and agriculture, and pollution from urban discharges and agrochemicals; (2) introduction of invasive species—mainly tilapias (Oreochromis spp.), carp (Cyprinus carpio), and trout (Oncorhynchus spp.)—that prey on larvae, compete for resources, and transmit diseases; (3) historical overexploitation for traditional consumption and medicinal use; (4) climate change altering hydrological regimes in already fragile ecosystems; and (5) genetic disconnection between remnant populations that increases vulnerability through inbreeding (Contreras et al., 2009; Zambrano et al., 2010; Parra-Olea et al., 2007).

The crisis is not only biological but also cultural. Species such as A. dumerilii and A. mexicanum have been deeply integrated into the cosmovision and traditional medicine of Purépecha and Mexica cultures respectively for centuries, forming part of Mesoamerican biocultural heritage (Aguilar-Moreno, 2006). Their disappearance represents not only a loss of biodiversity but also the irreversible erosion of traditional ecological knowledge and the rupture of ancestral symbolic systems.

The global captive population of A. mexicanum, widely distributed in biomedical research laboratories, teaching centers, aquariums, and private collections worldwide, has as common ancestors only 34 specimens captured in Xochimilco and taken to Paris in 1864 by naturalist Auguste Duméril (Voss et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2019; Khattak et al., 2014).

This limited genetic base has resulted in profound genomic consequences documented through single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analyses and complete genome sequencing: heterozygosity reduction of more than 60% compared to historical wild populations, loss of rare functional alleles associated with immune response and pathogen resistance, homogenization of mitochondrial haplotypes, and accumulation of deleterious mutations through genetic drift in small populations with prolonged inbreeding (Voss et al., 2015; Nowoshilow et al., 2018).

This genetic erosion represents a vulnerability for biomedical research: the regenerative, immunological, and metabolic responses observed in laboratory populations may not reflect the complete phenotypic plasticity of the wild genetic reservoir, limiting the general applicability of findings and the discovery of potentially valuable allelic variants for therapeutic applications (Khattak et al., 2014; Bryant et al., 2017). Recent studies demonstrate that individuals from wild populations in Xochimilco exhibit genetic variants associated with greater regenerative efficiency and resistance to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus) absent in laboratory lineages (Zamudio & Wieczorek, 2007; Voss et al., 2015).

Preservation the genetic diversity of Mexican wild populations is fundamental both for species conservation and for maximizing their potential in regenerative medicine. Each wild population that disappears—whether A. mexicanum, A. dumerilii, A. andersoni, A. velasci, or any other endemic species—implies losing genetic adaptations specific to their local environments, the result of prolonged evolutionary processes under specific ecological conditions (Parra-Olea et al., 2007, 2014; Shaffer et al., 2004). Native germplasm constitutes an invaluable biological repository that must be documented, preserved, and analyzed before its extinction.

This disconnection between captive abundance and genetic impoverishment underscores the urgent need for biobanks that integrate ex situ conservation of native genetic diversity with comparative genomic research, ensuring both species survival and sustainable utilization of their biomedical potential.

AxoloDAO was born from the collaboration between Zenbit—an onchain company oriented toward public goods and biodiversity conservation—, Xolotlcalli—a living axolotl biomuseum —and Ndali—a connection center and museum headquarters. This founding core integrates complementary capabilities in technological innovation, biological conservation, and cultural dissemination. From its origin, AxoloDAO is conceived as an open and neutral digital public coordination infrastructure—based on data standards and verifiable traceability—where laboratories, rescue centers, universities, and local projects can integrate, align protocols, and share scientific evidence without losing operational autonomy.

The starting point was Zenbit's sustained interest in biodiversity conservation, which led to a pilot project with Axolotarium to explore onchain tools applied to Ambystoma mexicanum conservation. As the project progressed, it became evident that limiting efforts to captive maintenance and reproduction was insufficient to achieve conservation objectives. While the technology showed its potential for traceability and financing, it also exposed project weaknesses that prevent converting individual rescue into effective conservation of wild populations: fragmented reports, dependence on third parties to validate and disseminate data, absence of common standards in data capture and reporting, and lack of key scientific infrastructure and capabilities (population genetics, genomic diversity analysis, systematized reproductive studies, and robust monitoring). This situation deepened informational asymmetry—critical for a species on the brink of extinction—and made management, reproduction, reintroduction, and research decisions vulnerable.

To address these gaps, Zenbit reaffirmed that the value of onchain infrastructure does not reside in the technology itself, but in what it enables: protocol standardization, verifiable and auditable data verification and traceability, open repositories, and interoperable governance that connects local efforts with coordinated strategies at national scale.

AxoloDAO implements these lessons through digital public infrastructure: shared standards for data capture and reporting, onchain verification and traceability mechanisms, open repositories, and interoperable governance among diverse actors that transforms isolated efforts into comparable and auditable knowledge, reduces dependence on intermediaries, and enables evidence-based coordinated strategies at local, regional, and national scales. AxoloDAO responds directly to the genetic impoverishment crisis documented in global captive populations and to the urgency of preserving the native genetic diversity of Mexican species before their definitive extinction. In summary, AxoloDAO converts collaboration into a reliable information and coordination system that prioritizes transparency, reproducibility, and real impact on Ambystoma populations.

This digital infrastructure materializes through a robust technical architecture designed to support the following strategic conservation lines:

1. Creation of a decentralized registry of the axolotl ecosystem, interconnecting data from natural sites, restored refuges, environmental variables, and population biological data.

2. Construction of open repositories of genetic data and field observations, including an onchain germplasm repository that preserves native genetic diversity under ethical and legal guidelines.

3. Facilitation of collaboration among researchers, institutions, and local communities through onchain infrastructure that reduces informational asymmetry and allows coordination without intermediaries.

4. Generation of sustainable financing models with environmental impact contracts that release funds according to verified onchain metrics.

5. Restoration and protection of critical Ambystoma habitats through local MicroDAOs in ecological refuges and chinampas with community governance.

6. Education on the ecological and cultural importance of these endemic species, highlighting their extraordinary regenerative capacities.

7. Demonstration of how digital public infrastructure can accelerate biodiversity conservation, establishing a model of decentralized biobanks for endangered species.

Therefore, its mission and vision are structured as follows:

• Mission: Conserve species of the genus Ambystoma in Mexico through public digital infrastructure that democratizes access to scientific data, facilitates intersectoral collaboration, and generates sustainable financing based on verifiable impact.

• Vision: Establish the global reference model in endemic species conservation through public digital infrastructure that transforms scientific collaboration, transparent resource management, and open access to biodiversity data, positioning Mexico as a leader in decentralized biobanks and open science.

Technical Architecture

AxoloDAO's technical architecture is built on four fundamental components:

1. Smart contracts deployed on Ethereum L2 (OP Stack) to store verifiable metadata of each specimen, conservation site, and research project.

2. Attestation System (EAS) that validates data provenance from certified laboratories, environmental sensors, and accredited researchers.

3. Decentralized identifiers (ENS/DID) that assign unique and immutable identity to each monitored axolotl, ecological refuge, or research dataset.

4. Programmable treasuries (Safe) that automatically fund projects according to verified onchain impact metrics (water quality improvements, population increase detected by eDNA, scientific publications).

This infrastructure transforms conservation into a transparent, auditable, and coordinated process, where researchers, communities, and donors participate in a public network of scientific evidence and environmental action.

To materialize this vision, AxoloDAO structures its operation in three strategic axes that address the critical dimensions of the Ambystoma conservation crisis: generation and standardization of scientific data, preservation of native genetic heritage, and ecosystem restoration through decentralized governance. These axes operate in an integrated manner, where generated data informs management decisions, preserved genetic diversity enables population recovery strategies, and restored ecosystems provide viable habitats for sustainable wild populations.

Effective conservation decision-making requires standardized, verifiable, and accessible information about population status, habitat quality, and ecological dynamics that determine their viability. However, information about Ambystoma in Mexico is fragmented among institutions, projects, and jurisdictions, without common collection protocols or shared access platforms. This disarticulation prevents comparative assessments between sites, hinders monitoring of long-term population trends, and limits response capacity to conservation emergencies.

AxoloDAO creates a decentralized registry of the axolotl ecosystem, interconnecting data from multiple sources. The system integrates three critical information categories:

1. Specimen data: Information on monitored individuals allows tracking population demographics, reproductive success, and responses to management interventions. Includes taxonomic identification of the 17 species, natural behavior and feeding ethograms that document behavioral health, regeneration events that evidence physiological capacities, and traceability of the origin center or project to guarantee verifiable provenance.

2. Environmental data: Habitat conditions determine population viability and reintroduction success. The system records water quality (temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen), geographic location (precise GPS coordinates and altitude), and habitat type (Xochimilco canals, high-mountain lakes, restored refuges), allowing correlation of environmental parameters with conservation results.

3. Population biological data: Understanding genetic structure, demography, and spatial distribution is fundamental for evidence-based conservation strategies. Phenotypes and morphological variations indicating expressed genetic diversity are documented, reproduction rates and population demography to assess long-term viability, genetic evidence through eDNA for non-invasive monitoring of presence and abundance, and spatial and temporal mapping that identifies critical conservation sites.

This data architecture enables systematic comparisons between sites, early identification of declining populations, and quantitative evaluation of conservation intervention impact.

The genetic homogeneity of global captive populations of A. mexicanum—descendants of only 34 founding individuals—represents a critical vulnerability documented through genomic analyses evidencing heterozygosity reduction exceeding 60%, loss of rare alleles associated with immune response, and accumulation of deleterious mutations (Voss et al., 2015; Nowoshilow et al., 2018). This genetic erosion not only compromises the evolutionary viability of captive populations but limits scientific discovery potential by restricting phenotypic variability available for biomedical research. Simultaneously, wild populations of the 17 Mexican species continue collapsing, taking with them millions of years of unique evolutionary adaptations to specific ecological conditions that have never been documented or preserved.

Facing this urgency, AxoloDAO proposes creating the first decentralized biobank of native Ambystoma genetic material that preserves the genetic diversity of Mexican endemic species before their definitive extinction. The repository operates through:

• Ethical and legally grounded collection: Obtaining gametes, tissues, and DNA from representative wild populations under SEMARNAT protocols that guarantee minimum impact on vulnerable populations, application of the Nagoya Protocol on access to genetic resources and fair benefit distribution, and prior informed consent from local communities safeguarding territories where species inhabit.

• Sequencing and genomic characterization: Analysis of complete genomes and transcriptomes of representative populations of each species to document allelic diversity, population structure, genetic variants associated with local adaptations, and candidate genes relevant for differential regenerative capacities among species.

• Resilient distributed storage: Preservation of genomic data on IPFS/Filecoin with geographic redundancy guaranteeing persistence, accessibility, and resistance to information loss from centralized infrastructure failures.

• Onchain registry with complete traceability: Each sample is registered with environmental metadata (habitat parameters), geographic (exact collection site), phenotypic (specimen morphological characteristics), and provenance (collecting institution, date, protocol used), creating an immutable and auditable history from collection to research use.

• Participatory governance for access: A DAO governance system where certified researchers request access through peer review protocols, origin communities participate in decisions about authorized uses, and fair benefit- distribution mechanisms are implemented when genetic material use derives in commercial applications.

This repository not only preserves the genetic diversity of the 17 Mexican species but establishes a model of sovereign management of national genetic resources aligned with the Nagoya Protocol, guaranteeing that knowledge derived from Mexican endemic biodiversity primarily benefits Mexico. Additionally, it constitutes a replicable precedent of decentralized biobanks for endangered species operating under principles of open science, verifiable traceability, and transparent governance.

Effective conservation requires coordination between local action and rigorous scientific monitoring. AxoloDAO implements a local MicroDAO model that decentralizes ecological refuge management while maintaining shared standards of monitoring, reporting, and governance:

1. MicroDAOs in each refuge: Decentralized autonomous organizations established in chinampas, restored refuges, and critical conservation sites, with direct participation of chinamperos, local communities, and scientists.

2. IoT sensors connected to smart contracts: Continuous 24/7 monitoring of water quality parameters (temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen) automatically feeding verifiable onchain records.

3. Environmental impact contracts: Programmable agreements that automatically compensate local guardians according to verified conservation metrics (population increases detected by eDNA, maintenance of optimal water quality, habitat restoration).

4. Public monitoring panels: Dashboards accessible in real-time for citizens, researchers, donors, and decision-makers, showing conservation status, environmental quality, and intervention effectiveness.

This model converts local communities into central conservation actors with economic incentives directly aligned to measurable results, while guaranteeing transparency and accountability through onchain verification of data and impact. Coordination among MicroDAOs enables shared learning about effective interventions, replication of best practices, and construction of a national network of ecological refuges operating under interoperable protocols.

AxoloDAO operates under a participatory decentralized governance model where multiple actors collaborate while maintaining operational autonomy:

• Researchers and scientists: Propose standardized data collection protocols, validate monitoring methodologies, and publish verifiable results onchain that feed evidence-based decisions.

• Local communities: Actively participate in habitat management decisions in their territories through MicroDAOs with proportional voting power, ensuring conservation strategies respect traditional ecological knowledge and community needs.

• Donors and funders: Track in real-time the quantifiable impact of their contributions through public dashboards reporting verified metrics: water quality improvements, population increases detected by eDNA, hectares of restored habitat, and scientific publications generated.

• Academic and governmental institutions: Collaborate through interoperable protocols without ceding proprietary data or institutional autonomy, publishing only verifiable metadata allowing coordination without centralization.

AxoloDAO operates as a multisectoral collaboration network integrating:

• Academic institutions: Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro (Faculty of Natural Sciences), Universidad Tecnológica de Querétaro, and universities throughout the Mexican Republic developing research in conservation and Ambystoma

• Governmental institutions: Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT), state and municipal environment secretariats, local governments, Secretaría de Desarrollo Sustentable (SEDESU), and Secretaría de la Juventud (SEJUVE) in environmental education projects.

• Private sector: Zenbit (onchain technological infrastructure), Ginger Birra, Querétaro Restaurant and Hotel Association, and companies committed to sustainability financing projects through verifiable impact contracts.

• Civil society organizations: Local conservation initiatives, chinampa communities, environmental collectives, and non-governmental organizations dedicated to protecting aquatic ecosystems.

The conservation crisis of the genus Ambystoma in Mexico represents both a critical threat and a transformative opportunity. The bibliometric analysis presented documents an unprecedented scientific paradox: while Mexico harbors 17 species of Ambystoma—53% of global genus diversity—and 16 of them are endemic exclusively to national territory, the country contributes only 3.3% of global scientific publications and maintains zero related patents. This underrepresentation is not merely statistical; it reflects a systematic extraction of knowledge where foreign institutions dominate research on Mexican endemic species, generate intellectual property derived from Mexican biological resources, and capture the economic value of a regenerative medicine market projected at $151.9 billion USD by 2026. However, the magnitude of this systemic crisis also evidences the transformative potential of new conservation models.

The Ambystoma case demonstrates that effective conservation of critically endangered species is not achieved exclusively through isolated habitat protection efforts or ex situ reproduction; it requires a comprehensive transformation in how scientific knowledge is generated, validated, shared, and used for evidence-based conservation decision-making. AxoloDAO proposes a paradigm shift: from centralized models dependent on individual institutions and unstable governmental funding, toward digital public infrastructure that operates as a shared common good. This infrastructure does not replace existing institutions—universities, research centers, environmental authorities, local communities—but rather connects them through standardized data collection and reporting protocols, onchain verification and traceability mechanisms, open repositories, and participatory governance allowing coordination without centralization.

AxoloDAO's three strategic axes—standardized data system, decentralized germplasm repository, and ecosystem restoration through MicroDAOs—address complementary dimensions of the crisis: information fragmentation preventing evidence-based decisions, genetic vulnerability compromising evolutionary viability of captive populations, and habitat degradation eliminating refuges for wild populations. This integrated architecture enables local conservation efforts to articulate into nationally coordinated strategies, where knowledge generated at one site informs interventions at others, preserved genetic resources enable population recovery programs, and restored ecosystems provide viable habitats for long-term persistence.

The infrastructure proposed by AxoloDAO not only preserves endangered biodiversity; it enables a new era of scientific research on Ambystoma. The onchain germplasm repository represents the first systematic effort to document and preserve the complete genetic diversity of the 17 Mexican species before their extinction. This collection of genomes, transcriptomes, and associated environmental metadata will constitute an invaluable resource for comparative research: What genetic variants explain differences in regenerative capacities among species? What evolutionary adaptations allowed A. taylori to colonize unique saline environments? What alleles present in wild populations but absent in laboratory colonies confer resistance to emerging pathogens?

The standardized data system enables for the first time metapopulation-scale studies correlating environmental parameters, genetic diversity, and population viability across multiple sites. Fundamental questions that have remained unanswered due to lack of comparable data—What is the minimum viable population size for long-term persistence? What water quality thresholds determine reproductive success? How does habitat fragmentation affect population genetic structure?— can be addressed through aggregated data analysis from dozens of sites operating under standardized protocols.

Beyond conservation, this model of decentralized biobanks with transparent governance establishes a precedent for other critically endangered species. If AxoloDAO demonstrates that it is possible to preserve genetic diversity, generate high-impact scientific knowledge, and financially sustain long-term conservation operations through public digital infrastructure, the model will be replicable for hundreds of Mexican endemic species facing similar threats.

The time to act is now. The window of opportunity to preserve the native genetic diversity of Mexican Ambystoma species is closing rapidly: each wild population that disappears represents the irreversible loss of millions of years of evolution and unique adaptations. The public digital infrastructure proposed by AxoloDAO offers a concrete path to transform this crisis into an opportunity for scientific leadership and effective conservation.

We invite researchers, academic institutions, conservation organizations, local communities, companies committed to sustainability, and interested citizens to join this collective effort. Participation can take multiple forms: contributing monitoring data under standardized protocols, integrating local projects into the MicroDAO network, financing verifiable environmental impact contracts onchain, collaborating in genomic characterization of wild populations, or simply disseminating the importance of conserving these extraordinary species.

AxoloDAO's success will not be measured solely by publications generated or funds raised, but by the fundamental result: viable populations of the 17 Mexican Ambystoma species persisting in restored habitats, with their genetic diversity documented and preserved, generating scientific knowledge that benefits Mexico and serving as a replicable model of effective conservation for the 21st century.

The bibliometric analysis presented in this article is based on multiple specialized data sources:

Scientific publications: 5,807 articles on the genus Ambystoma (period 2015-2025), including 2,783 publications specific to A. mexicanum, 194 articles with participation from Mexican institutions, and specific analyses of Mexican endemic species: A. andersoni (104 publications), A. dumerilii (141 publications), and A. velasci (159 publications). Data were extracted from Lens.org, Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed through systematic searches by species scientific name, related terms (regeneration, conservation, genomics), and co-citation analysis. Institutional authorship analysis was based on first author and corresponding author affiliation according to publication metadata.

Biotechnological patents: 253 Ambystoma-related patents registered between 2015-2025, extracted from Google Patents, USPTO, EPO, and WIPO through keyword searches (Ambystoma, axolotl, regeneration, salamander) in titles, abstracts, and claims. Registration jurisdiction, legal status, technological category, and non-patent literature citations were documented.

Economic projections: Regenerative medicine market estimates are based on reports from Grand View Research (2024) and Markets and Markets (2024), projecting the global market at $151.9 billion USD by 2026 with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 23.3%.

Conservation analysis: Species conservation status according to IUCN Red List categories (2024) and NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, complemented with data from the Action Program for Conservation of Ambystoma spp. Species (SEMARNAT, 2018).

Methodological limitations include possible underrepresentation of publications in languages other than English, bias toward literature indexed in Anglo-American databases, and difficulty in quantifying Mexican participation in international collaborations where institutional affiliation does not reflect researcher nationality. Bibliometric data represent robust general trends but specific figures should be interpreted as approximations with an estimated margin of error of ±5%.

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From the original AxoloDAO article

The genus Ambystoma comprises approximately 32 species of salamanders distributed exclusively across North America. Mexico harbors 17 of these species, with 16 of them being endemic to the national territory (SEMARNAT, 2018; Parra-Olea et al., 2014). Despite possessing more than 50% of the global diversity of these neotenic amphibians and being home to the Mexican axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum)—a species that has demonstrated therapeutic potential in regenerative medicine for treating spinal cord injuries, heart diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders (McCusker & Gardiner, 2011; Tanaka & Reddien, 2011)—Mexico contributes only 3.3% of global scientific publications on the genus and holds no patents. Paradoxically, the Mexican axolotl represents nearly half (48%) of all worldwide research on Ambystoma, establishing itself as a fundamental model organism for understanding tissue regeneration mechanisms. In response to this crisis of scientific underrepresentation, AxoloDAO emerges as a decentralized organization that, through digital public infrastructure, participatory governance, and onchain tools, seeks to revolutionize conservation and accelerate research on the genus Ambystoma in Mexico, positioning the country as a leader in the knowledge and sustainable use of its unique biological heritage.

The genus Ambystoma, endemic to North America, represents one of the most extraordinary evolutionary phenomena on the planet. These salamanders, distributed from southern Alaska to central Mexico, exhibit neoteny—the retention of larval characteristics in the adult state—and possess unprecedented regenerative capabilities unprecedented in vertebrates: complete regeneration of limbs, spinal cord (30% of neural tissue), cardiac tissue (up to 25% of the ventricle), and even portions of the brain without scar tissue formation (Reiß et al., 2015; Joven et al., 2019; Sousounis et al., 2014).

The medical importance of the Mexican axolotl has been extensively documented. Recent studies demonstrate that axolotl-derived growth factors (particularly FGF-8 and BMP-2) promote cardiac tissue regeneration in murine models (Godwin et al., 2017), while proteins identified in its regenerative process show potential for treating traumatic spinal cord injuries (Sabin et al., 2015). The global regenerative medicine market, driven in part by research on Ambystoma, is projected to reach $151.9 billion USD by 2026 (Grand View Research, 2024).

Mexico is the global epicenter of Ambystoma diversity, harboring 17 species of which 16 are endemic (Parra-Olea et al., 2014; SEMARNAT, 2018). These species inhabit an extraordinary variety of high-altitude aquatic ecosystems (1,800-3,500 meters above sea level) distributed primarily throughout the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt: from the ancient lakes of the Valley of Mexico (Xochimilco-Chalco system) to crater lakes such as Alchichica in Puebla (2,300 masl), Michoacán lake systems (Pátzcuaro at 2,035 masl, Zacapu at 1,980 masl), the Lerma-Santiago system in the State of Mexico, mountain streams in the Sierra de las Cruces (3,100 masl), and springs in the Sierra Madre Occidental from Chihuahua to Guerrero (Contreras et al., 2009; Zambrano et al., 2010).

Each species is adapted to unique ecological conditions: the Pátzcuaro salamander (A. dumerilii), the Alchichica axolotl (A. taylori), the Tarahumara axolotl (A. rosaceum) from pine-oak forests between 2,000-2,800 masl, or the stream axolotl (A. altamirani) from mountainous areas of central Mexico (Shaffer et al., 2008). These species are not only exceptional laboratory models but also cultural emblems deeply rooted in the Mesoamerican cosmovision, where Xólotl, the Mexica god of transformation and the underworld, took the form of the axolotl to escape sacrifice (Aguilar-Moreno, 2006; Zambrano et al., 2010).

However, the conservation reality is alarming: at least 11 Mexican species of Ambystoma are in categories of highest risk (9 Critically Endangered-CR, 2 Endangered-EN according to IUCN, 2024), evidencing a systemic crisis affecting fragile mountain freshwater ecosystems throughout the national territory.

Currently, the genus Ambystoma faces a devastating paradox while the genome of the Mexican axolotl, with 32 billion base pairs (10 times larger than the human genome) is intensively studied in laboratories in the United States, Germany, Austria, and Japan (Nowoshilow et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2019), Mexico—home to 53% of the world's Ambystoma biodiversity—holds zero patents and contributes only 3.3% of scientific articles about the genus. Wild populations continue collapsing, with A. mexicanum reduced to fewer than 1,000 individuals in Xochimilco, detectable only through environmental DNA analysis (Voss et al., 2015; Zambrano et al., 2010; SEMARNAT, 2018).

In response to this unprecedented crisis, AxoloDAO emerges: a decentralized organization dedicated to the conservation of the genus Ambystoma. AxoloDAO is based on a fundamental premise: conservation data must be managed as a shared, accessible, and verifiable public good for all ecosystem stakeholders.

To achieve this, AxoloDAO builds onchain digital public infrastructure that integrates the complete conservation cycle: it creates decentralized records of biological, environmental, and genetic data verifiable on Ethereum and the Superchain; preserves native germplasm in open repositories that safeguard genetic diversity; facilitates scientific collaboration among researchers, institutions, and communities without intermediaries; generates sustainable financing through impact contracts that release funds based on verifiable onchain metrics; restores critical habitats through local MicroDAOs with community governance; and educates on the ecological and cultural importance of these endemic species. This transparent and collaborative architecture allows Mexico to reclaim sovereignty over scientific knowledge of its unique biological heritage, establishing a replicable model of decentralized biobanks for endangered biodiversity conservation worldwide.

Bibliometric analysis of 5,805 publications on the genus Ambystoma during the 2015-2025 period reveals not only a dynamic field but one profoundly unequal in its geographic and thematic distribution. Worldwide research is dominated by genomics and genetics, which with 1,552 articles represents 26.7% of the total, followed by conservation studies with 1,054 publications (18.2%). This thematic distribution exposes an evident disconnect between the basic knowledge generated and its clinical application: while cell and molecular biology encompasses 1,002 articles (17.3%) and ecological studies total 920 (15.9%), regenerative medicine—the area with the greatest translational and economic potential—barely reaches 70 publications in the entire decade (1.2%), despite the documented therapeutic potential of these species (Tanaka & Reddien, 2011; McCusker & Gardiner, 2011).

The geographic distribution shows that the United States and Europe generate more than 80% of publications, while Mexico, the center of endemism for the genus with 17 species, contributes only 194 articles (3.3% of the total). This underrepresentation is particularly significant considering that A. mexicanum represents almost half (48%) of all global research on Ambystoma (2,783 of 5,805 publications), establishing itself as the dominant model organism (Bryant et al., 2017; Voss et al., 2015).

Temporal trends show an initial expansion followed by contraction: the peak production in 2016 (1,154 articles) coincided with advances in sequencing technologies (Nowoshilow et al., 2018), but production has declined to 548 articles in 2023. This deceleration reveals a severe geographic concentration of knowledge: more than 80% of studies are produced in the United States and Europe, consolidated in elite research groups such as the Ambystoma Genetic Stock Center (Kentucky), the Max Planck Institute (Dresden), and the Center for Regenerative Medicine (Vienna), which maintain reference colonies and dominate high-impact publications (Smith et al., 2019; Bryant et al., 2017). While these foreign institutions lead worldwide research on Mexican endemic species, Mexico—a country with 16 endemic species of the genus—contributes only 194 publications, evidencing an unprecedented intellectual extraction of its biological resources.

The hyperconcentration on A. mexicanum has two faces: on one hand, it consolidates the species as the model organism par excellence for regeneration studies with 2,787 publications; on the other, it means that the other 16 Mexican endemic species are virtually ignored by global science. This downward trend in total production suggests a possible exhaustion of traditional research lines or, more worryingly, a consolidation of the field in the hands of a few elite research groups that control both the animal colonies and specialized techniques.

The "post-2018 genomic explosion" following the publication of the complete genome of the Mexican axolotl perfectly illustrates Mexico's exclusion from the scientific development of its own resources. This scientific milestone, led by European and American institutions, generated hundreds of subsequent publications on gene regulation, developmental evolution, and regenerative medicine. However, no Mexican laboratory participated as a principal author in these fundamental studies, relegating the country to the role of passive observer of the scientific revolution based on its endemic biodiversity.

The paradox reaches its most critical expression in the analysis of the biotechnological patent landscape. Mexico, home to 53% of the world's Ambystoma biodiversity, maintains a record of zero patents while observing how other countries monetize knowledge derived from its endemic species. Of the 253 patents registered globally between 2015 and 2025, the United States dominates with 149 patents (59%), followed by WIPO (international patents) with 63 (25%), Europe with 30 (12%), and China with 8 (3%). This distribution does not reflect scientific capacity but rather an appropriation strategy: while other countries capture commercial value through patents, Mexico remains absent from technological development based on its own endemic species.

The science-to-patent conversion analysis exposes the systemic inefficiency of the global innovation ecosystem in Ambystoma. Regeneration, a central theme with 649 scientific articles, has generated only 8 patents (81:1 ratio), suggesting enormous missed opportunities or insurmountable barriers to technological translation. Genomics, with its 1,552 articles, produced 42 patents (37:1 ratio), representing the field where the most knowledge is being lost without intellectual property protection; while regenerative medicine shows the most efficient conversion with 70 articles generating 12 patents (6:1 ratio). These ratios reveal that regenerative medicine, although less studied, shows the highest efficiency, suggesting unexploited opportunities in tissue regeneration and genomics (Oviedo & Beane, 2009; Godwin et al., 2017; Tanaka & Ferretti, 2009).

Patent categories are distributed as: culture methods (102, 40.3%), cellular/tissue applications (76, 30%), gene sequences (42, 16.6%), proteins and growth factors (35, 13.8%), and direct therapeutic applications (12, 4.7%). This distribution indicates that technological control is concentrated in fundamental tools and methods rather than final applications, characteristic of emerging biotechnological fields (Tanaka & Ferretti, 2009). Temporal analysis shows a growing lag between scientific publication and patenting: the peak of articles occurred in 2016 while the peak of patents arrived in 2024, an 8-year gap that continues expanding, suggesting accelerated commercial consolidation of the field with approximately 50% of patents still active.

The Mexican paradox in Ambystoma research responds to structural factors that perpetuate the gap between endemic biodiversity and scientific production. Mexico has fewer than 5 specialized laboratories in developmental biology and regenerative medicine with capacity to maintain axolotl colonies, compared to more than 200 in the United States and Europe.

The scarcity of infrastructure and funding drives brain drain: specialized Mexican researchers systematically emigrate to foreign institutions where they find better conditions to develop their research. Regulatory barriers aggravate the problem—permits for research with endangered species can take more than 18 months—discouraging local projects. Additionally, there is a critical disconnect between academia and conservation, creating a gap between in situ conservation efforts and basic research that limits the application of scientific knowledge to the preservation of wild populations.

These deficiencies translate into multiple gaps. Geographically, Mexican research remains underrepresented while countries without native populations dominate studies, and threatened species other than A. mexicanum are practically ignored. Thematically, regenerative medicine remains underdeveloped (~70 articles in 10 years despite a market potential of $150 billion), there is severe imbalance between laboratory studies and fieldwork, and biotechnological applications remain unexplored. In application, the transfer of basic knowledge to clinical uses is nearly null, conservation remains disconnected from recent scientific evidence, and there is a complete absence of validation in Mexican preclinical models.

However, encouraging trends emerge in the last two years, although dominated by foreign institutions: regenerative medicine grows steadily focusing on growth factors; omics technologies are consolidating (single-cell sequencing and spatial transcriptomics); genomics is beginning to be applied to population management; comparative studies between axolotls and mammals in biomedicine are increasing; and there is intensifying emphasis on translating basic research into clinical applications.

Mexico is the global epicenter of Ambystoma diversity with 17 species (>50% of the global total), of which 16 are endemic—94% endemism—concentrated in high-mountain aquatic ecosystems (Shaffer et al., 2004; Contreras et al., 2009). According to the official categorization of NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, 15 of the 16 endemic species are in some risk category: one species Endangered (P), three Threatened (A), and eleven subject to Special Protection (Pr) (SEMARNAT, 2010). The IUCN Red List presents an even more critical panorama: at least 9 species are classified as Critically Endangered (CR)—A. mexicanum, A. dumerilii, A. leorae, A. taylori, A. andersoni, A. granulosum, A. lermaense, A. amblycephalum, and A. bombypellum—while two additional species are Endangered (EN)—A. altamirani and A. rivulare (IUCN, 2024). This categorization means that approximately 65% of Mexican endemic species face an extremely high or very high risk of extinction in the wild.

The threats are multifactorial and synergistic: (1) habitat degradation and loss through accelerated urbanization, desiccation of water bodies for human consumption and agriculture, and pollution from urban discharges and agrochemicals; (2) introduction of invasive species—mainly tilapias (Oreochromis spp.), carp (Cyprinus carpio), and trout (Oncorhynchus spp.)—that prey on larvae, compete for resources, and transmit diseases; (3) historical overexploitation for traditional consumption and medicinal use; (4) climate change altering hydrological regimes in already fragile ecosystems; and (5) genetic disconnection between remnant populations that increases vulnerability through inbreeding (Contreras et al., 2009; Zambrano et al., 2010; Parra-Olea et al., 2007).

The crisis is not only biological but also cultural. Species such as A. dumerilii and A. mexicanum have been deeply integrated into the cosmovision and traditional medicine of Purépecha and Mexica cultures respectively for centuries, forming part of Mesoamerican biocultural heritage (Aguilar-Moreno, 2006). Their disappearance represents not only a loss of biodiversity but also the irreversible erosion of traditional ecological knowledge and the rupture of ancestral symbolic systems.

The global captive population of A. mexicanum, widely distributed in biomedical research laboratories, teaching centers, aquariums, and private collections worldwide, has as common ancestors only 34 specimens captured in Xochimilco and taken to Paris in 1864 by naturalist Auguste Duméril (Voss et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2019; Khattak et al., 2014).

This limited genetic base has resulted in profound genomic consequences documented through single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analyses and complete genome sequencing: heterozygosity reduction of more than 60% compared to historical wild populations, loss of rare functional alleles associated with immune response and pathogen resistance, homogenization of mitochondrial haplotypes, and accumulation of deleterious mutations through genetic drift in small populations with prolonged inbreeding (Voss et al., 2015; Nowoshilow et al., 2018).

This genetic erosion represents a vulnerability for biomedical research: the regenerative, immunological, and metabolic responses observed in laboratory populations may not reflect the complete phenotypic plasticity of the wild genetic reservoir, limiting the general applicability of findings and the discovery of potentially valuable allelic variants for therapeutic applications (Khattak et al., 2014; Bryant et al., 2017). Recent studies demonstrate that individuals from wild populations in Xochimilco exhibit genetic variants associated with greater regenerative efficiency and resistance to Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (chytrid fungus) absent in laboratory lineages (Zamudio & Wieczorek, 2007; Voss et al., 2015).

Preservation the genetic diversity of Mexican wild populations is fundamental both for species conservation and for maximizing their potential in regenerative medicine. Each wild population that disappears—whether A. mexicanum, A. dumerilii, A. andersoni, A. velasci, or any other endemic species—implies losing genetic adaptations specific to their local environments, the result of prolonged evolutionary processes under specific ecological conditions (Parra-Olea et al., 2007, 2014; Shaffer et al., 2004). Native germplasm constitutes an invaluable biological repository that must be documented, preserved, and analyzed before its extinction.

This disconnection between captive abundance and genetic impoverishment underscores the urgent need for biobanks that integrate ex situ conservation of native genetic diversity with comparative genomic research, ensuring both species survival and sustainable utilization of their biomedical potential.

AxoloDAO was born from the collaboration between Zenbit—an onchain company oriented toward public goods and biodiversity conservation—, Xolotlcalli—a living axolotl biomuseum —and Ndali—a connection center and museum headquarters. This founding core integrates complementary capabilities in technological innovation, biological conservation, and cultural dissemination. From its origin, AxoloDAO is conceived as an open and neutral digital public coordination infrastructure—based on data standards and verifiable traceability—where laboratories, rescue centers, universities, and local projects can integrate, align protocols, and share scientific evidence without losing operational autonomy.

The starting point was Zenbit's sustained interest in biodiversity conservation, which led to a pilot project with Axolotarium to explore onchain tools applied to Ambystoma mexicanum conservation. As the project progressed, it became evident that limiting efforts to captive maintenance and reproduction was insufficient to achieve conservation objectives. While the technology showed its potential for traceability and financing, it also exposed project weaknesses that prevent converting individual rescue into effective conservation of wild populations: fragmented reports, dependence on third parties to validate and disseminate data, absence of common standards in data capture and reporting, and lack of key scientific infrastructure and capabilities (population genetics, genomic diversity analysis, systematized reproductive studies, and robust monitoring). This situation deepened informational asymmetry—critical for a species on the brink of extinction—and made management, reproduction, reintroduction, and research decisions vulnerable.

To address these gaps, Zenbit reaffirmed that the value of onchain infrastructure does not reside in the technology itself, but in what it enables: protocol standardization, verifiable and auditable data verification and traceability, open repositories, and interoperable governance that connects local efforts with coordinated strategies at national scale.

AxoloDAO implements these lessons through digital public infrastructure: shared standards for data capture and reporting, onchain verification and traceability mechanisms, open repositories, and interoperable governance among diverse actors that transforms isolated efforts into comparable and auditable knowledge, reduces dependence on intermediaries, and enables evidence-based coordinated strategies at local, regional, and national scales. AxoloDAO responds directly to the genetic impoverishment crisis documented in global captive populations and to the urgency of preserving the native genetic diversity of Mexican species before their definitive extinction. In summary, AxoloDAO converts collaboration into a reliable information and coordination system that prioritizes transparency, reproducibility, and real impact on Ambystoma populations.

This digital infrastructure materializes through a robust technical architecture designed to support the following strategic conservation lines:

1. Creation of a decentralized registry of the axolotl ecosystem, interconnecting data from natural sites, restored refuges, environmental variables, and population biological data.

2. Construction of open repositories of genetic data and field observations, including an onchain germplasm repository that preserves native genetic diversity under ethical and legal guidelines.

3. Facilitation of collaboration among researchers, institutions, and local communities through onchain infrastructure that reduces informational asymmetry and allows coordination without intermediaries.

4. Generation of sustainable financing models with environmental impact contracts that release funds according to verified onchain metrics.

5. Restoration and protection of critical Ambystoma habitats through local MicroDAOs in ecological refuges and chinampas with community governance.

6. Education on the ecological and cultural importance of these endemic species, highlighting their extraordinary regenerative capacities.

7. Demonstration of how digital public infrastructure can accelerate biodiversity conservation, establishing a model of decentralized biobanks for endangered species.

Therefore, its mission and vision are structured as follows:

• Mission: Conserve species of the genus Ambystoma in Mexico through public digital infrastructure that democratizes access to scientific data, facilitates intersectoral collaboration, and generates sustainable financing based on verifiable impact.

• Vision: Establish the global reference model in endemic species conservation through public digital infrastructure that transforms scientific collaboration, transparent resource management, and open access to biodiversity data, positioning Mexico as a leader in decentralized biobanks and open science.

Technical Architecture

AxoloDAO's technical architecture is built on four fundamental components:

1. Smart contracts deployed on Ethereum L2 (OP Stack) to store verifiable metadata of each specimen, conservation site, and research project.

2. Attestation System (EAS) that validates data provenance from certified laboratories, environmental sensors, and accredited researchers.

3. Decentralized identifiers (ENS/DID) that assign unique and immutable identity to each monitored axolotl, ecological refuge, or research dataset.

4. Programmable treasuries (Safe) that automatically fund projects according to verified onchain impact metrics (water quality improvements, population increase detected by eDNA, scientific publications).

This infrastructure transforms conservation into a transparent, auditable, and coordinated process, where researchers, communities, and donors participate in a public network of scientific evidence and environmental action.

To materialize this vision, AxoloDAO structures its operation in three strategic axes that address the critical dimensions of the Ambystoma conservation crisis: generation and standardization of scientific data, preservation of native genetic heritage, and ecosystem restoration through decentralized governance. These axes operate in an integrated manner, where generated data informs management decisions, preserved genetic diversity enables population recovery strategies, and restored ecosystems provide viable habitats for sustainable wild populations.

Effective conservation decision-making requires standardized, verifiable, and accessible information about population status, habitat quality, and ecological dynamics that determine their viability. However, information about Ambystoma in Mexico is fragmented among institutions, projects, and jurisdictions, without common collection protocols or shared access platforms. This disarticulation prevents comparative assessments between sites, hinders monitoring of long-term population trends, and limits response capacity to conservation emergencies.

AxoloDAO creates a decentralized registry of the axolotl ecosystem, interconnecting data from multiple sources. The system integrates three critical information categories:

1. Specimen data: Information on monitored individuals allows tracking population demographics, reproductive success, and responses to management interventions. Includes taxonomic identification of the 17 species, natural behavior and feeding ethograms that document behavioral health, regeneration events that evidence physiological capacities, and traceability of the origin center or project to guarantee verifiable provenance.

2. Environmental data: Habitat conditions determine population viability and reintroduction success. The system records water quality (temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen), geographic location (precise GPS coordinates and altitude), and habitat type (Xochimilco canals, high-mountain lakes, restored refuges), allowing correlation of environmental parameters with conservation results.

3. Population biological data: Understanding genetic structure, demography, and spatial distribution is fundamental for evidence-based conservation strategies. Phenotypes and morphological variations indicating expressed genetic diversity are documented, reproduction rates and population demography to assess long-term viability, genetic evidence through eDNA for non-invasive monitoring of presence and abundance, and spatial and temporal mapping that identifies critical conservation sites.

This data architecture enables systematic comparisons between sites, early identification of declining populations, and quantitative evaluation of conservation intervention impact.

The genetic homogeneity of global captive populations of A. mexicanum—descendants of only 34 founding individuals—represents a critical vulnerability documented through genomic analyses evidencing heterozygosity reduction exceeding 60%, loss of rare alleles associated with immune response, and accumulation of deleterious mutations (Voss et al., 2015; Nowoshilow et al., 2018). This genetic erosion not only compromises the evolutionary viability of captive populations but limits scientific discovery potential by restricting phenotypic variability available for biomedical research. Simultaneously, wild populations of the 17 Mexican species continue collapsing, taking with them millions of years of unique evolutionary adaptations to specific ecological conditions that have never been documented or preserved.

Facing this urgency, AxoloDAO proposes creating the first decentralized biobank of native Ambystoma genetic material that preserves the genetic diversity of Mexican endemic species before their definitive extinction. The repository operates through:

• Ethical and legally grounded collection: Obtaining gametes, tissues, and DNA from representative wild populations under SEMARNAT protocols that guarantee minimum impact on vulnerable populations, application of the Nagoya Protocol on access to genetic resources and fair benefit distribution, and prior informed consent from local communities safeguarding territories where species inhabit.

• Sequencing and genomic characterization: Analysis of complete genomes and transcriptomes of representative populations of each species to document allelic diversity, population structure, genetic variants associated with local adaptations, and candidate genes relevant for differential regenerative capacities among species.

• Resilient distributed storage: Preservation of genomic data on IPFS/Filecoin with geographic redundancy guaranteeing persistence, accessibility, and resistance to information loss from centralized infrastructure failures.

• Onchain registry with complete traceability: Each sample is registered with environmental metadata (habitat parameters), geographic (exact collection site), phenotypic (specimen morphological characteristics), and provenance (collecting institution, date, protocol used), creating an immutable and auditable history from collection to research use.

• Participatory governance for access: A DAO governance system where certified researchers request access through peer review protocols, origin communities participate in decisions about authorized uses, and fair benefit- distribution mechanisms are implemented when genetic material use derives in commercial applications.

This repository not only preserves the genetic diversity of the 17 Mexican species but establishes a model of sovereign management of national genetic resources aligned with the Nagoya Protocol, guaranteeing that knowledge derived from Mexican endemic biodiversity primarily benefits Mexico. Additionally, it constitutes a replicable precedent of decentralized biobanks for endangered species operating under principles of open science, verifiable traceability, and transparent governance.

Effective conservation requires coordination between local action and rigorous scientific monitoring. AxoloDAO implements a local MicroDAO model that decentralizes ecological refuge management while maintaining shared standards of monitoring, reporting, and governance:

1. MicroDAOs in each refuge: Decentralized autonomous organizations established in chinampas, restored refuges, and critical conservation sites, with direct participation of chinamperos, local communities, and scientists.

2. IoT sensors connected to smart contracts: Continuous 24/7 monitoring of water quality parameters (temperature, pH, conductivity, dissolved oxygen) automatically feeding verifiable onchain records.

3. Environmental impact contracts: Programmable agreements that automatically compensate local guardians according to verified conservation metrics (population increases detected by eDNA, maintenance of optimal water quality, habitat restoration).

4. Public monitoring panels: Dashboards accessible in real-time for citizens, researchers, donors, and decision-makers, showing conservation status, environmental quality, and intervention effectiveness.

This model converts local communities into central conservation actors with economic incentives directly aligned to measurable results, while guaranteeing transparency and accountability through onchain verification of data and impact. Coordination among MicroDAOs enables shared learning about effective interventions, replication of best practices, and construction of a national network of ecological refuges operating under interoperable protocols.

AxoloDAO operates under a participatory decentralized governance model where multiple actors collaborate while maintaining operational autonomy:

• Researchers and scientists: Propose standardized data collection protocols, validate monitoring methodologies, and publish verifiable results onchain that feed evidence-based decisions.

• Local communities: Actively participate in habitat management decisions in their territories through MicroDAOs with proportional voting power, ensuring conservation strategies respect traditional ecological knowledge and community needs.

• Donors and funders: Track in real-time the quantifiable impact of their contributions through public dashboards reporting verified metrics: water quality improvements, population increases detected by eDNA, hectares of restored habitat, and scientific publications generated.

• Academic and governmental institutions: Collaborate through interoperable protocols without ceding proprietary data or institutional autonomy, publishing only verifiable metadata allowing coordination without centralization.

AxoloDAO operates as a multisectoral collaboration network integrating:

• Academic institutions: Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro (Faculty of Natural Sciences), Universidad Tecnológica de Querétaro, and universities throughout the Mexican Republic developing research in conservation and Ambystoma

• Governmental institutions: Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT), state and municipal environment secretariats, local governments, Secretaría de Desarrollo Sustentable (SEDESU), and Secretaría de la Juventud (SEJUVE) in environmental education projects.

• Private sector: Zenbit (onchain technological infrastructure), Ginger Birra, Querétaro Restaurant and Hotel Association, and companies committed to sustainability financing projects through verifiable impact contracts.

• Civil society organizations: Local conservation initiatives, chinampa communities, environmental collectives, and non-governmental organizations dedicated to protecting aquatic ecosystems.

The conservation crisis of the genus Ambystoma in Mexico represents both a critical threat and a transformative opportunity. The bibliometric analysis presented documents an unprecedented scientific paradox: while Mexico harbors 17 species of Ambystoma—53% of global genus diversity—and 16 of them are endemic exclusively to national territory, the country contributes only 3.3% of global scientific publications and maintains zero related patents. This underrepresentation is not merely statistical; it reflects a systematic extraction of knowledge where foreign institutions dominate research on Mexican endemic species, generate intellectual property derived from Mexican biological resources, and capture the economic value of a regenerative medicine market projected at $151.9 billion USD by 2026. However, the magnitude of this systemic crisis also evidences the transformative potential of new conservation models.

The Ambystoma case demonstrates that effective conservation of critically endangered species is not achieved exclusively through isolated habitat protection efforts or ex situ reproduction; it requires a comprehensive transformation in how scientific knowledge is generated, validated, shared, and used for evidence-based conservation decision-making. AxoloDAO proposes a paradigm shift: from centralized models dependent on individual institutions and unstable governmental funding, toward digital public infrastructure that operates as a shared common good. This infrastructure does not replace existing institutions—universities, research centers, environmental authorities, local communities—but rather connects them through standardized data collection and reporting protocols, onchain verification and traceability mechanisms, open repositories, and participatory governance allowing coordination without centralization.

AxoloDAO's three strategic axes—standardized data system, decentralized germplasm repository, and ecosystem restoration through MicroDAOs—address complementary dimensions of the crisis: information fragmentation preventing evidence-based decisions, genetic vulnerability compromising evolutionary viability of captive populations, and habitat degradation eliminating refuges for wild populations. This integrated architecture enables local conservation efforts to articulate into nationally coordinated strategies, where knowledge generated at one site informs interventions at others, preserved genetic resources enable population recovery programs, and restored ecosystems provide viable habitats for long-term persistence.

The infrastructure proposed by AxoloDAO not only preserves endangered biodiversity; it enables a new era of scientific research on Ambystoma. The onchain germplasm repository represents the first systematic effort to document and preserve the complete genetic diversity of the 17 Mexican species before their extinction. This collection of genomes, transcriptomes, and associated environmental metadata will constitute an invaluable resource for comparative research: What genetic variants explain differences in regenerative capacities among species? What evolutionary adaptations allowed A. taylori to colonize unique saline environments? What alleles present in wild populations but absent in laboratory colonies confer resistance to emerging pathogens?

The standardized data system enables for the first time metapopulation-scale studies correlating environmental parameters, genetic diversity, and population viability across multiple sites. Fundamental questions that have remained unanswered due to lack of comparable data—What is the minimum viable population size for long-term persistence? What water quality thresholds determine reproductive success? How does habitat fragmentation affect population genetic structure?— can be addressed through aggregated data analysis from dozens of sites operating under standardized protocols.

Beyond conservation, this model of decentralized biobanks with transparent governance establishes a precedent for other critically endangered species. If AxoloDAO demonstrates that it is possible to preserve genetic diversity, generate high-impact scientific knowledge, and financially sustain long-term conservation operations through public digital infrastructure, the model will be replicable for hundreds of Mexican endemic species facing similar threats.

The time to act is now. The window of opportunity to preserve the native genetic diversity of Mexican Ambystoma species is closing rapidly: each wild population that disappears represents the irreversible loss of millions of years of evolution and unique adaptations. The public digital infrastructure proposed by AxoloDAO offers a concrete path to transform this crisis into an opportunity for scientific leadership and effective conservation.

We invite researchers, academic institutions, conservation organizations, local communities, companies committed to sustainability, and interested citizens to join this collective effort. Participation can take multiple forms: contributing monitoring data under standardized protocols, integrating local projects into the MicroDAO network, financing verifiable environmental impact contracts onchain, collaborating in genomic characterization of wild populations, or simply disseminating the importance of conserving these extraordinary species.

AxoloDAO's success will not be measured solely by publications generated or funds raised, but by the fundamental result: viable populations of the 17 Mexican Ambystoma species persisting in restored habitats, with their genetic diversity documented and preserved, generating scientific knowledge that benefits Mexico and serving as a replicable model of effective conservation for the 21st century.

The bibliometric analysis presented in this article is based on multiple specialized data sources:

Scientific publications: 5,807 articles on the genus Ambystoma (period 2015-2025), including 2,783 publications specific to A. mexicanum, 194 articles with participation from Mexican institutions, and specific analyses of Mexican endemic species: A. andersoni (104 publications), A. dumerilii (141 publications), and A. velasci (159 publications). Data were extracted from Lens.org, Web of Science, Scopus, and PubMed through systematic searches by species scientific name, related terms (regeneration, conservation, genomics), and co-citation analysis. Institutional authorship analysis was based on first author and corresponding author affiliation according to publication metadata.

Biotechnological patents: 253 Ambystoma-related patents registered between 2015-2025, extracted from Google Patents, USPTO, EPO, and WIPO through keyword searches (Ambystoma, axolotl, regeneration, salamander) in titles, abstracts, and claims. Registration jurisdiction, legal status, technological category, and non-patent literature citations were documented.

Economic projections: Regenerative medicine market estimates are based on reports from Grand View Research (2024) and Markets and Markets (2024), projecting the global market at $151.9 billion USD by 2026 with a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 23.3%.

Conservation analysis: Species conservation status according to IUCN Red List categories (2024) and NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010, complemented with data from the Action Program for Conservation of Ambystoma spp. Species (SEMARNAT, 2018).

Methodological limitations include possible underrepresentation of publications in languages other than English, bias toward literature indexed in Anglo-American databases, and difficulty in quantifying Mexican participation in international collaborations where institutional affiliation does not reflect researcher nationality. Bibliometric data represent robust general trends but specific figures should be interpreted as approximations with an estimated margin of error of ±5%.

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