Almost every discussion about quantum computing and Bitcoin converges on the same point: ECDSA and Schnorr signatures are vulnerable to Shor's algorithm. That's true. But it's only one third of the problem. Bitcoin's security stack has three quantum-vulnerable layers. The current post-quantum roadmap — including BIP-360 — addresses only one of them. This article presents three independently deployable directions and analyzes the design tradeoffs of each.The Three Vulnerable LayersLayer 1: P2P...

Almost every discussion about quantum computing and Bitcoin converges on the same point: ECDSA and Schnorr signatures are vulnerable to Shor's algorithm. That's true. But it's only one third of the problem. Bitcoin's security stack has three quantum-vulnerable layers. The current post-quantum roadmap — including BIP-360 — addresses only one of them. This article presents three independently deployable directions and analyzes the design tradeoffs of each.The Three Vulnerable LayersLayer 1: P2P...

I. The Root of the Problem: The Scale Cost of Post-Quantum SignaturesIn 2024, NIST finalized its post-quantum cryptography standards. Lattice-based signature schemes such as ML-DSA (formerly Dilithium) are positioned to replace classical public-key signatures as the primary defense against quantum adversaries. Yet when engineers began seriously considering deploying these schemes on blockchains, a structural contradiction emerged: The size of post-quantum signatures is inherently at odds with...

I. The Root of the Problem: The Scale Cost of Post-Quantum SignaturesIn 2024, NIST finalized its post-quantum cryptography standards. Lattice-based signature schemes such as ML-DSA (formerly Dilithium) are positioned to replace classical public-key signatures as the primary defense against quantum adversaries. Yet when engineers began seriously considering deploying these schemes on blockchains, a structural contradiction emerged: The size of post-quantum signatures is inherently at odds with...

The problem. Blockchains have largely treated identity, authorization, and control as one object—the private key. That compression is under strain: post-quantum signatures are large; institutions need conditional, revocable control; AI agents need bounded autonomy; wallet recovery still depends on a single master backup; cross-chain identity fragments; and everyone pays the cost of “every node does the same verification.” The separation. ACE-GF splits identity binding from per-transaction autho

The problem. Blockchains have largely treated identity, authorization, and control as one object—the private key. That compression is under strain: post-quantum signatures are large; institutions need conditional, revocable control; AI agents need bounded autonomy; wallet recovery still depends on a single master backup; cross-chain identity fragments; and everyone pays the cost of “every node does the same verification.” The separation. ACE-GF splits identity binding from per-transaction autho