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Abstract
As Ethereum strives to scale its operations while preserving decentralization and security, Layer 2 solutions such as ZK-Rollups have emerged as promising techniques. ZK-Rollups provide enhanced scalability by processing transactions off-chain and submitting succinct proofs to the main chain. However, this very attribute that grants scalability introduces new security concerns, particularly regarding code correctness and oracle security. This paper critically examines these security challenges, exploring the limitations of existing infrastructure, and proposes a novel solution in the form of a new Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP) introducing "Fishermen" validators.
1. Introduction
Ethereum, a pioneer in the world of blockchain, has provided a decentralized platform for executing smart contracts, empowering developers and businesses worldwide. Its potential for transforming various sectors, from finance to supply chain to digital identity, is immense. However, the widespread adoption of Ethereum has also raised critical concerns about its scalability. The Ethereum network, as it currently stands, can handle only a limited number of transactions per second, making it challenging to scale to the levels required for global adoption. This scalability issue has prompted the exploration and development of numerous Layer 2 solutions designed to increase Ethereum's throughput without compromising its core attributes of decentralization and security.
Among the various Layer 2 solutions, ZK-Rollups are gaining significant attention. ZK-Rollups operate by moving the bulk of transactions off-chain and submitting only a succinct proof to the Ethereum mainnet, thereby dramatically reducing the load on the network. This approach allows for increased transaction throughput, providing an effective mechanism for Ethereum to scale its operations.
The distinguishing feature of ZK-Rollups is their use of Zero-Knowledge Proofs, a class of cryptographic techniques that allows one party (the prover) to demonstrate to another party (the verifier) that they possess specific knowledge without revealing the knowledge itself. In the case of ZK-Rollups, ZKPs are used to validate off-chain computations, ensuring their correctness and integrity without requiring the computations to be processed on the Ethereum main chain. This enables a higher transaction throughput while maintaining the security guarantees of the main chain.
Despite the promising nature of ZK-Rollups, their implementation and usage introduce new security considerations. Because the execution of smart contract code occurs off-chain in a ZK-Rollup environment, and only the proof of correctness is submitted on-chain, it poses challenges in validating the correctness and security of the off-chain code. Moreover, the reliance on oracles for interfacing with real-world data introduces additional potential vulnerabilities.
Abstract
As Ethereum strives to scale its operations while preserving decentralization and security, Layer 2 solutions such as ZK-Rollups have emerged as promising techniques. ZK-Rollups provide enhanced scalability by processing transactions off-chain and submitting succinct proofs to the main chain. However, this very attribute that grants scalability introduces new security concerns, particularly regarding code correctness and oracle security. This paper critically examines these security challenges, exploring the limitations of existing infrastructure, and proposes a novel solution in the form of a new Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP) introducing "Fishermen" validators.
1. Introduction
Ethereum, a pioneer in the world of blockchain, has provided a decentralized platform for executing smart contracts, empowering developers and businesses worldwide. Its potential for transforming various sectors, from finance to supply chain to digital identity, is immense. However, the widespread adoption of Ethereum has also raised critical concerns about its scalability. The Ethereum network, as it currently stands, can handle only a limited number of transactions per second, making it challenging to scale to the levels required for global adoption. This scalability issue has prompted the exploration and development of numerous Layer 2 solutions designed to increase Ethereum's throughput without compromising its core attributes of decentralization and security.
Among the various Layer 2 solutions, ZK-Rollups are gaining significant attention. ZK-Rollups operate by moving the bulk of transactions off-chain and submitting only a succinct proof to the Ethereum mainnet, thereby dramatically reducing the load on the network. This approach allows for increased transaction throughput, providing an effective mechanism for Ethereum to scale its operations.
The distinguishing feature of ZK-Rollups is their use of Zero-Knowledge Proofs, a class of cryptographic techniques that allows one party (the prover) to demonstrate to another party (the verifier) that they possess specific knowledge without revealing the knowledge itself. In the case of ZK-Rollups, ZKPs are used to validate off-chain computations, ensuring their correctness and integrity without requiring the computations to be processed on the Ethereum main chain. This enables a higher transaction throughput while maintaining the security guarantees of the main chain.
Despite the promising nature of ZK-Rollups, their implementation and usage introduce new security considerations. Because the execution of smart contract code occurs off-chain in a ZK-Rollup environment, and only the proof of correctness is submitted on-chain, it poses challenges in validating the correctness and security of the off-chain code. Moreover, the reliance on oracles for interfacing with real-world data introduces additional potential vulnerabilities.
In this paper, we aim to critically examine the security implications of ZK-Rollups, explore the limitations of the current Ethereum infrastructure in addressing these security issues, and propose potential solutions. Our exploration leads us to suggest the introduction of a novel participant in the Ethereum network — "Fishermen" validators — through a new Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP). This proposal seeks to enhance the security and transparency of ZK-Rollups by establishing a decentralized network of validators responsible for verifying the off-chain code and contents of ZK-Rollup transactions. We believe this approach, along with other potential measures, could contribute significantly to the robustness and reliability of ZK-Rollups, further enhancing Ethereum's scalability without compromising its security.
2. ZK-Rollups: An Overview
Zero-Knowledge Rollups (ZK-Rollups) represent a type of Layer 2 scaling solution that optimizes data processing in the Ethereum network by processing transactions off-chain and submitting only a succinct cryptographic proof, also known as a Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP), to the main chain. This mechanism reduces the amount of data that must be stored, verified, and processed in each transaction, allowing for a significant increase in the network's throughput.
In essence, ZK-Rollups bundle or "roll up" numerous transactions into a single proof, which is then committed to the Ethereum mainnet. Simultaneously, the full details of all bundled transactions are stored in cheap data storage, also known as calldata, on the Ethereum mainnet. This approach ensures that while the Ethereum mainnet is tasked with only minimal computation, the complete transaction data remains fully available and can be reconstructed at any time.
The security of ZK-Rollups is based on the mathematical validity of the zero-knowledge proofs. These proofs allow a prover (in this case, the entity that generates the rollup) to demonstrate to a verifier (the Ethereum mainnet, in this case) that a certain statement is true without revealing any additional information.
Several projects are currently leveraging the potential of ZK-Rollups:
zkSync: Developed by Matter Labs, zkSync aims to bring a VISA-scale level of throughput to the Ethereum network while keeping the funds as secure as in the underlying L1 accounts and maintaining a high degree of censorship-resistance. zkSync uses ZK-Rollup technology for scaling payments and enabling smart contracts execution.
Loopring: Loopring is a decentralized exchange protocol and an order book-based DEX built on Ethereum. It uses ZK-Rollup technology to aggregate multiple trades into a single proof, allowing for significantly higher throughput and lower cost per trade than would be possible on the Ethereum mainnet alone.
Hermes Network: Hermes is an Ethereum Layer 2 solution that uses ZK-Rollup technology to scale payment and token transfers on the Ethereum network. With its focus on zero-knowledge cryptography, Hermes aims to offer a balance between scalability and security.
Scroll.io: Scroll is an innovative project focusing on building an EVM-compatible zk-Rollup with a robust proving network. Having achieved significant technical progress after months of exploration, Scroll brings a unique perspective to the zk-Rollup landscape, as it introduces new approaches and solutions for off-chain computations on Ethereum.
Despite their promise, ZK-Rollups are not without challenges, as their use and implementation bring forward new security considerations. The following sections will delve deeper into these security concerns and propose potential measures to address them.
3. Core Concepts of Zero-Knowledge Proofs
Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) represent a revolutionary concept in the field of cryptography. These are a type of digital protocol where one party (the prover) can prove to another party (the verifier) that they know a value of a specific piece of information, without conveying any details apart from the fact that they know the information. This property is termed "zero-knowledge" because the verifier gains zero additional knowledge about the information, except for the fact that the prover has it.
ZKPs stand on three fundamental properties that guarantee their security and effectiveness:
Completeness: In a system where both prover and verifier are behaving honestly, the verifier will be convinced of the truth of the statement after a successful proof.
Soundness: If the prover is dishonest and tries to convince the verifier of a false statement, they will not succeed. Put another way, a dishonest prover cannot convince a verifier that a false statement is true.
Zero-Knowledge: If the statement is true, the verifier will not learn anything beyond the fact that the statement is true. Therefore, the prover does not disclose any other information about the truth aside from its validity.
In the context of ZK-Rollups, these ZKPs are used to validate off-chain computations without revealing any underlying information about those computations. For instance, the prover can prove that they have performed the transactions bundled in the ZK-Rollup without revealing any details about the individual transactions.
ZKPs ensure that while the Ethereum mainnet only receives and verifies the proof, the soundness of ZKPs guarantees that these proofs are accurate and trustworthy. This balance between preserving privacy and maintaining verifiability is what makes ZKPs, and by extension, ZK-Rollups, a promising solution for Ethereum's scalability issues.
However, the focus of ZKP research has historically been primarily on the zero-knowledge aspect, while the properties of soundness and completeness are equally important. Soundness and completeness ensure that the proofs submitted to the mainnet are accurate and truthful, a critical aspect when considering potential security vulnerabilities. As we venture into the following sections, we will explore these concerns and their implications in more detail.
4. Potential Security Concerns and Challenges in Verification and Auditing in ZK-Rollups
While ZK-Rollups and Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) offer promising solutions for scaling Ethereum, they introduce new security considerations and challenges in code verification and auditing. This section discusses these concerns in depth.
4.1. Soundness and Completeness - Overlooked Pillars
Historically, the research focus around ZKPs has been heavily skewed towards zero-knowledge property, while equally crucial properties of soundness and completeness have often been overlooked. These latter properties ensure that the proofs submitted to the Ethereum mainnet are not only accurate but truthful. This omission could pose potential security vulnerabilities.
Soundness guarantees that a dishonest prover cannot convince the verifier of a false statement, and completeness ensures that an honest prover can convince the verifier of a true statement. In ZK-Rollups, where off-chain computations are validated through ZKPs, compromising soundness could lead to the validation of false computations. On the other hand, an attack on completeness could prevent the validation of true computations. Therefore, ensuring both soundness and completeness is crucial for the overall security of a ZK-Rollup.
4.2. Code Verification and Auditing Complexity
The implementation of ZK-Rollups adds a layer of complexity to the validation and auditing of smart contracts. With the rollup architecture, the actual computations move off-chain, meaning that the original code executing these computations is no longer directly visible on-chain. This change in code location can make it challenging for validators and auditors to verify and audit the code's correctness, potentially leading to the introduction and execution of malicious code.
4.3. Vulnerabilities in Multi-Layer Architecture
With different types of Layer 2 architecture, nodes, proofs, and validators, potential security vulnerabilities may arise. For instance, a sophisticated attacker could exploit potential vulnerabilities in the communication between these different layers and elements.
Consider a scenario involving ZK-Rollups and oracle data. Suppose a smart contract on a ZK-Rollup relies on off-chain data provided by an oracle. If an attacker manipulates this data, the contract could execute on false assumptions, potentially leading to severe consequences. Since ZKPs focus on proving the correct execution of computations, they don't inherently provide guarantees about the correctness or security of the input data, which can lead to such potential security vulnerabilities.
4.5. Proposed Solutions and Further Research
Given these potential security concerns and challenges, it's crucial to explore possible solutions and areas of further research. One potential approach could be the introduction of a new actor in the Ethereum ecosystem, called a "Fisherman," tasked with validating the actual code and contents of these ZK transactions. Another could involve further research and development to improve the architecture of the Ethereum network to handle the complexities introduced by Layer 2 solutions like ZK-Rollups.
However, these are complex issues that require extensive research and testing before they can be effectively addressed. As ZK-Rollups continue to evolve, it will be crucial to keep these security concerns at the forefront to ensure the technology can scale securely and sustainably.
5. Limitations of Current Ethereum 2.0 Design
Ethereum 2.0, or ETH2, represents a significant upgrade to the Ethereum blockchain that introduces Proof of Stake (PoS), shard chains, and more to increase the platform's scalability, security, and sustainability. However, while ETH2 brings promising improvements, it also presents its unique set of challenges, particularly when coupled with Layer 2 solutions like ZK-Rollups. This section delves into these issues with a focus on validators in the ETH2 architecture.
5.1. Role of Validators in Ethereum 2.0
In Ethereum 2.0, validators play a central role in maintaining and securing the network. Unlike miners in a Proof of Work (PoW) system, validators in the PoS system are chosen to create a new block based on the amount of Ethereum they hold and are willing to 'stake' as collateral.
Validators in the Ethereum 2.0 infrastructure have their primary concerns associated with PoS mechanics. These include aspects like the maintenance of a minimum stake, the performance of their validating nodes, uptime, and ensuring they aren't validating malicious or incorrect transactions that would lead to penalties or 'slashing.'
5.2. Overlooking Off-Chain Computations
However, as Ethereum continues to scale and adopt Layer 2 solutions like ZK-Rollups, the responsibilities and challenges facing validators are likely to become more complex. While validators are primarily concerned with issues related to PoS, the actual computations in the case of ZK-Rollups occur off-chain.
Validators, as they currently operate, validate the succinct proofs of the computations that occur off-chain in the ZK-Rollups, but not the actual computations. This distinction could leave potential security vulnerabilities unchecked as the responsibility for verifying the validity of off-chain computations is not explicitly within the validators' purview.
5.3. Challenges of Code Verification in ZK-Rollups
With the introduction of ZK-Rollups, validators would need to verify the correctness of the actual computations taking place off-chain. This new responsibility introduces a higher level of complexity as validators now need to ensure that the code executed off-chain is not malicious or incorrect, in addition to maintaining their responsibilities in PoS.
This additional layer of verification can also lead to an increase in the risk and potential for mistakes, which could have significant repercussions given the stakes validators have in the Ethereum 2.0 network.
6. A Proposed Solution: Introducing 'Fishermen' Validators
To address the potential security vulnerabilities and challenges in code verification and auditing introduced by ZK-Rollups, a new solution could be introduced: Fishermen Validators. This section explores this proposal and how it might work in the Ethereum ecosystem.
6.1. The Role of Fishermen Validators
Fishermen Validators could be a new type of participant in the Ethereum network, distinct from regular validators. While regular validators would continue to validate succinct proofs in ZK-Rollups, Fishermen Validators would be responsible for verifying the actual code and contents of ZK transactions.
This double layer of validation could significantly enhance the security of ZK-Rollups. By having Fishermen Validators validate the code executed off-chain, the network can ensure the integrity of the computations within the ZK-Rollups and guard against potential attacks on the completeness and soundness of ZKPs.
6.2. Proposed Protocol for ZK Transactions
To facilitate the work of Fishermen Validators, a protocol for ZK transactions could be established. This protocol would standardize the way ZK transactions are constructed and validated, ensuring the compatibility and interoperability of these transactions across different Ethereum clients and Layer 2 solutions.
The specifics of this protocol would require significant research and testing. For instance, how should Fishermen Validators be incentivized to verify ZK transactions accurately? How can the network ensure that Fishermen Validators are honest? How should the protocol handle potential disputes or disagreements between validators? These and other questions need to be addressed to develop an effective and robust protocol for ZK transactions.
7. Conclusion
The advent of ZK-Rollups and other Layer 2 solutions has opened up exciting new possibilities for Ethereum and the broader blockchain ecosystem. These technologies offer a promising path to overcoming the scalability challenges that have long plagued Ethereum. However, they also introduce new complexities and potential security vulnerabilities.
In this paper, we have delved into the intricacies of ZK-Rollups, the core concepts of Zero-Knowledge Proofs, the potential security concerns, the limitations of the current Layer 2 infrastructure, and the challenges in code verification and auditing. We have also proposed the concept of Fishermen Validators as a potential solution to some of these challenges.
While the road to a fully scalable and secure Ethereum may be complex, it is undoubtedly exciting. With continued research and development, solutions like ZK-Rollups can continue to evolve and refine, moving the blockchain ecosystem closer to achieving its full potential.
As we navigate this path, it will be crucial to continue investigating and addressing the potential security concerns, limitations, and challenges introduced by these emerging technologies. Only by doing so can we ensure the sustainable and secure scaling of Ethereum and the broader blockchain ecosystem.
In this paper, we aim to critically examine the security implications of ZK-Rollups, explore the limitations of the current Ethereum infrastructure in addressing these security issues, and propose potential solutions. Our exploration leads us to suggest the introduction of a novel participant in the Ethereum network — "Fishermen" validators — through a new Ethereum Improvement Proposal (EIP). This proposal seeks to enhance the security and transparency of ZK-Rollups by establishing a decentralized network of validators responsible for verifying the off-chain code and contents of ZK-Rollup transactions. We believe this approach, along with other potential measures, could contribute significantly to the robustness and reliability of ZK-Rollups, further enhancing Ethereum's scalability without compromising its security.
2. ZK-Rollups: An Overview
Zero-Knowledge Rollups (ZK-Rollups) represent a type of Layer 2 scaling solution that optimizes data processing in the Ethereum network by processing transactions off-chain and submitting only a succinct cryptographic proof, also known as a Zero-Knowledge Proof (ZKP), to the main chain. This mechanism reduces the amount of data that must be stored, verified, and processed in each transaction, allowing for a significant increase in the network's throughput.
In essence, ZK-Rollups bundle or "roll up" numerous transactions into a single proof, which is then committed to the Ethereum mainnet. Simultaneously, the full details of all bundled transactions are stored in cheap data storage, also known as calldata, on the Ethereum mainnet. This approach ensures that while the Ethereum mainnet is tasked with only minimal computation, the complete transaction data remains fully available and can be reconstructed at any time.
The security of ZK-Rollups is based on the mathematical validity of the zero-knowledge proofs. These proofs allow a prover (in this case, the entity that generates the rollup) to demonstrate to a verifier (the Ethereum mainnet, in this case) that a certain statement is true without revealing any additional information.
Several projects are currently leveraging the potential of ZK-Rollups:
zkSync: Developed by Matter Labs, zkSync aims to bring a VISA-scale level of throughput to the Ethereum network while keeping the funds as secure as in the underlying L1 accounts and maintaining a high degree of censorship-resistance. zkSync uses ZK-Rollup technology for scaling payments and enabling smart contracts execution.
Loopring: Loopring is a decentralized exchange protocol and an order book-based DEX built on Ethereum. It uses ZK-Rollup technology to aggregate multiple trades into a single proof, allowing for significantly higher throughput and lower cost per trade than would be possible on the Ethereum mainnet alone.
Hermes Network: Hermes is an Ethereum Layer 2 solution that uses ZK-Rollup technology to scale payment and token transfers on the Ethereum network. With its focus on zero-knowledge cryptography, Hermes aims to offer a balance between scalability and security.
Scroll.io: Scroll is an innovative project focusing on building an EVM-compatible zk-Rollup with a robust proving network. Having achieved significant technical progress after months of exploration, Scroll brings a unique perspective to the zk-Rollup landscape, as it introduces new approaches and solutions for off-chain computations on Ethereum.
Despite their promise, ZK-Rollups are not without challenges, as their use and implementation bring forward new security considerations. The following sections will delve deeper into these security concerns and propose potential measures to address them.
3. Core Concepts of Zero-Knowledge Proofs
Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) represent a revolutionary concept in the field of cryptography. These are a type of digital protocol where one party (the prover) can prove to another party (the verifier) that they know a value of a specific piece of information, without conveying any details apart from the fact that they know the information. This property is termed "zero-knowledge" because the verifier gains zero additional knowledge about the information, except for the fact that the prover has it.
ZKPs stand on three fundamental properties that guarantee their security and effectiveness:
Completeness: In a system where both prover and verifier are behaving honestly, the verifier will be convinced of the truth of the statement after a successful proof.
Soundness: If the prover is dishonest and tries to convince the verifier of a false statement, they will not succeed. Put another way, a dishonest prover cannot convince a verifier that a false statement is true.
Zero-Knowledge: If the statement is true, the verifier will not learn anything beyond the fact that the statement is true. Therefore, the prover does not disclose any other information about the truth aside from its validity.
In the context of ZK-Rollups, these ZKPs are used to validate off-chain computations without revealing any underlying information about those computations. For instance, the prover can prove that they have performed the transactions bundled in the ZK-Rollup without revealing any details about the individual transactions.
ZKPs ensure that while the Ethereum mainnet only receives and verifies the proof, the soundness of ZKPs guarantees that these proofs are accurate and trustworthy. This balance between preserving privacy and maintaining verifiability is what makes ZKPs, and by extension, ZK-Rollups, a promising solution for Ethereum's scalability issues.
However, the focus of ZKP research has historically been primarily on the zero-knowledge aspect, while the properties of soundness and completeness are equally important. Soundness and completeness ensure that the proofs submitted to the mainnet are accurate and truthful, a critical aspect when considering potential security vulnerabilities. As we venture into the following sections, we will explore these concerns and their implications in more detail.
4. Potential Security Concerns and Challenges in Verification and Auditing in ZK-Rollups
While ZK-Rollups and Zero-Knowledge Proofs (ZKPs) offer promising solutions for scaling Ethereum, they introduce new security considerations and challenges in code verification and auditing. This section discusses these concerns in depth.
4.1. Soundness and Completeness - Overlooked Pillars
Historically, the research focus around ZKPs has been heavily skewed towards zero-knowledge property, while equally crucial properties of soundness and completeness have often been overlooked. These latter properties ensure that the proofs submitted to the Ethereum mainnet are not only accurate but truthful. This omission could pose potential security vulnerabilities.
Soundness guarantees that a dishonest prover cannot convince the verifier of a false statement, and completeness ensures that an honest prover can convince the verifier of a true statement. In ZK-Rollups, where off-chain computations are validated through ZKPs, compromising soundness could lead to the validation of false computations. On the other hand, an attack on completeness could prevent the validation of true computations. Therefore, ensuring both soundness and completeness is crucial for the overall security of a ZK-Rollup.
4.2. Code Verification and Auditing Complexity
The implementation of ZK-Rollups adds a layer of complexity to the validation and auditing of smart contracts. With the rollup architecture, the actual computations move off-chain, meaning that the original code executing these computations is no longer directly visible on-chain. This change in code location can make it challenging for validators and auditors to verify and audit the code's correctness, potentially leading to the introduction and execution of malicious code.
4.3. Vulnerabilities in Multi-Layer Architecture
With different types of Layer 2 architecture, nodes, proofs, and validators, potential security vulnerabilities may arise. For instance, a sophisticated attacker could exploit potential vulnerabilities in the communication between these different layers and elements.
Consider a scenario involving ZK-Rollups and oracle data. Suppose a smart contract on a ZK-Rollup relies on off-chain data provided by an oracle. If an attacker manipulates this data, the contract could execute on false assumptions, potentially leading to severe consequences. Since ZKPs focus on proving the correct execution of computations, they don't inherently provide guarantees about the correctness or security of the input data, which can lead to such potential security vulnerabilities.
4.5. Proposed Solutions and Further Research
Given these potential security concerns and challenges, it's crucial to explore possible solutions and areas of further research. One potential approach could be the introduction of a new actor in the Ethereum ecosystem, called a "Fisherman," tasked with validating the actual code and contents of these ZK transactions. Another could involve further research and development to improve the architecture of the Ethereum network to handle the complexities introduced by Layer 2 solutions like ZK-Rollups.
However, these are complex issues that require extensive research and testing before they can be effectively addressed. As ZK-Rollups continue to evolve, it will be crucial to keep these security concerns at the forefront to ensure the technology can scale securely and sustainably.
5. Limitations of Current Ethereum 2.0 Design
Ethereum 2.0, or ETH2, represents a significant upgrade to the Ethereum blockchain that introduces Proof of Stake (PoS), shard chains, and more to increase the platform's scalability, security, and sustainability. However, while ETH2 brings promising improvements, it also presents its unique set of challenges, particularly when coupled with Layer 2 solutions like ZK-Rollups. This section delves into these issues with a focus on validators in the ETH2 architecture.
5.1. Role of Validators in Ethereum 2.0
In Ethereum 2.0, validators play a central role in maintaining and securing the network. Unlike miners in a Proof of Work (PoW) system, validators in the PoS system are chosen to create a new block based on the amount of Ethereum they hold and are willing to 'stake' as collateral.
Validators in the Ethereum 2.0 infrastructure have their primary concerns associated with PoS mechanics. These include aspects like the maintenance of a minimum stake, the performance of their validating nodes, uptime, and ensuring they aren't validating malicious or incorrect transactions that would lead to penalties or 'slashing.'
5.2. Overlooking Off-Chain Computations
However, as Ethereum continues to scale and adopt Layer 2 solutions like ZK-Rollups, the responsibilities and challenges facing validators are likely to become more complex. While validators are primarily concerned with issues related to PoS, the actual computations in the case of ZK-Rollups occur off-chain.
Validators, as they currently operate, validate the succinct proofs of the computations that occur off-chain in the ZK-Rollups, but not the actual computations. This distinction could leave potential security vulnerabilities unchecked as the responsibility for verifying the validity of off-chain computations is not explicitly within the validators' purview.
5.3. Challenges of Code Verification in ZK-Rollups
With the introduction of ZK-Rollups, validators would need to verify the correctness of the actual computations taking place off-chain. This new responsibility introduces a higher level of complexity as validators now need to ensure that the code executed off-chain is not malicious or incorrect, in addition to maintaining their responsibilities in PoS.
This additional layer of verification can also lead to an increase in the risk and potential for mistakes, which could have significant repercussions given the stakes validators have in the Ethereum 2.0 network.
6. A Proposed Solution: Introducing 'Fishermen' Validators
To address the potential security vulnerabilities and challenges in code verification and auditing introduced by ZK-Rollups, a new solution could be introduced: Fishermen Validators. This section explores this proposal and how it might work in the Ethereum ecosystem.
6.1. The Role of Fishermen Validators
Fishermen Validators could be a new type of participant in the Ethereum network, distinct from regular validators. While regular validators would continue to validate succinct proofs in ZK-Rollups, Fishermen Validators would be responsible for verifying the actual code and contents of ZK transactions.
This double layer of validation could significantly enhance the security of ZK-Rollups. By having Fishermen Validators validate the code executed off-chain, the network can ensure the integrity of the computations within the ZK-Rollups and guard against potential attacks on the completeness and soundness of ZKPs.
6.2. Proposed Protocol for ZK Transactions
To facilitate the work of Fishermen Validators, a protocol for ZK transactions could be established. This protocol would standardize the way ZK transactions are constructed and validated, ensuring the compatibility and interoperability of these transactions across different Ethereum clients and Layer 2 solutions.
The specifics of this protocol would require significant research and testing. For instance, how should Fishermen Validators be incentivized to verify ZK transactions accurately? How can the network ensure that Fishermen Validators are honest? How should the protocol handle potential disputes or disagreements between validators? These and other questions need to be addressed to develop an effective and robust protocol for ZK transactions.
7. Conclusion
The advent of ZK-Rollups and other Layer 2 solutions has opened up exciting new possibilities for Ethereum and the broader blockchain ecosystem. These technologies offer a promising path to overcoming the scalability challenges that have long plagued Ethereum. However, they also introduce new complexities and potential security vulnerabilities.
In this paper, we have delved into the intricacies of ZK-Rollups, the core concepts of Zero-Knowledge Proofs, the potential security concerns, the limitations of the current Layer 2 infrastructure, and the challenges in code verification and auditing. We have also proposed the concept of Fishermen Validators as a potential solution to some of these challenges.
While the road to a fully scalable and secure Ethereum may be complex, it is undoubtedly exciting. With continued research and development, solutions like ZK-Rollups can continue to evolve and refine, moving the blockchain ecosystem closer to achieving its full potential.
As we navigate this path, it will be crucial to continue investigating and addressing the potential security concerns, limitations, and challenges introduced by these emerging technologies. Only by doing so can we ensure the sustainable and secure scaling of Ethereum and the broader blockchain ecosystem.
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