Controlled Opposition

"Controlled opposition" is a strategy in which a group or individual is covertly controlled or influenced by another group or institution, to control or direct dissent towards predetermined outcomes. This can be done to create the illusion of debate, distract from important issues, or discredit or dilute alternative perspectives. The term is often used in political contexts, but it can apply in other areas as well.

Sock Puppet

In the context of Internet communication, a sock puppet is a false identity created by a person or entity to manipulate or deceive others. It's often used to promote, defend or create the illusion of support for particular views, products, or people, or to artificially inflate the reputation or credibility of an individual or organization.

Limited Hangout

A "limited hangout" is a public relations or propaganda strategy that involves the release of previously hidden information to prevent a greater exposure or revelation. It’s often used when an organization or individual is trying to manage or divert attention away from a larger, more damaging issue. The term originated from the Watergate scandal during Richard Nixon's presidency in the United States.

“A LIMITED HANGOUT is a phrase used in the intelligence community to describe situations where leaking or revealing parts of the truth operates to control the public narrative. Manipulative partial disclosure.”

Fake News

"Fake news" refers to misinformation or disinformation presented as true news. It often has the aim of spreading false information for various reasons, such as manipulating public opinion, causing confusion, or discrediting individuals or groups. Fake news can be propagated through traditional media outlets but is especially prevalent on social media platforms due to their reach and speed of dissemination.

Disinformation

Disinformation is false information that's deliberately created and spread to deceive or mislead. It differs from misinformation, which refers to any false information regardless of intent. Disinformation is often used in contexts such as politics, advertising, propaganda, and warfare, aiming to influence public opinion or obscure the truth.

Misinformation

Misinformation is false or inaccurate information, especially that which is deliberately intended to deceive. Unlike disinformation, which implies an intent to deceive, misinformation can be spread unknowingly or without the intention to cause harm.

Conspiracy Theorist

A conspiracy theorist is a person who propounds or believes in conspiracy theories. Conspiracy theories are explanatory propositions that suggest events, conditions, or phenomena are the result of secret, often malevolent, actions by groups or individuals, rather than natural or overt processes. These theories often reject mainstream or official explanations for those events and frequently revolve around perceived attempts to conceal the 'true' reasons behind them.

Terrorist

A terrorist is a person who uses unlawful violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political, ideological, or religious aims. These acts of violence are typically carried out in an organized manner to influence or coerce governments or societies.

Alternatively, terrorists are usually small groups of fanatics that believe in a deeply unpopular ideology and then use fear-based psychological warfare to bully society or their enemies abroad into giving them concessions instead of relying on open warfare.

Bad Jacketing

"Bad jacketing" is a term originating from counterintelligence practices and is also used in activism communities to describe the act of creating suspicion or mistrust around an individual, typically by labelling them as an informant or spy without evidence. This can lead to their isolation or expulsion from a group and effectively undermines group solidarity. The term is often associated with tactics employed by law enforcement or intelligence agencies to disrupt social or political movements.

Gaslighting

Gaslighting is a form of psychological manipulation in which a person or group makes someone question their sanity, perception of reality, or memories. It may involve denying the victim's experience, contradicting facts, or belittling the victim's feelings and thoughts, creating a high level of doubt and confusion. The term originates from the 1938 play (and later 1944 film adaptation) "Gas Light," where a husband manipulates his wife into believing she is losing her mind.

Trolling

"Trolling" is an internet term referring to the act of deliberately posting inflammatory, irrelevant, or offensive comments or messages on the internet to provoke, disrupt, or upset others or to trigger an emotional response for amusement. It's often carried out in online communities such as forums, chat rooms, or comment sections of websites.

Psywar

"Psywar" is short for psychological warfare, which is the use of propaganda, threats, and other psychological techniques to mislead, intimidate, demoralize, or otherwise influence the thinking or behaviour of an opponent. This can be employed during wartime, in political campaigns, or in other contentious situations where one party wants to gain a psychological advantage.

Psyops

"Psyops" is short for psychological operations. It refers to the use of propaganda and other psychological techniques to influence people's minds, emotions, motives, reasoning, and ultimately their behaviour. This term is often used in the context of warfare and intelligence operations, where these tactics are employed to demoralize enemies, support allies, or persuade neutrals.

Weaponisation

The term "weaponisation" refers to the process of adapting something for use as a weapon or using it in a way that can cause harm or damage. This could involve physical items, such as turning a simple tool into a weapon, or more abstract elements, like data, information, or even space. For example, the weaponisation of social media refers to its use to spread disinformation, incite violence, or otherwise harm individuals or societies.

Propaganda

Propaganda is a method of communication, often biased or misleading, used to influence people's attitudes, beliefs, and actions towards specific political, ideological, or commercial objectives. It can be disseminated through various media, including speeches, books, films, music, memes, and social media posts. The intent is to shape perceptions or manipulate behaviour by appealing to emotions, fears, prejudices, or values, rather than engaging in rational argumentation.

Echo Chamber

An "echo chamber" is a term used to describe a situation in which beliefs are amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition inside a closed system and insulated from rebuttal. In an echo chamber, differing views are censored, disallowed, or otherwise underrepresented. This often refers to situations where people only engage with information that confirms their existing opinions, such as on social media platforms or news outlets catering to specific political ideologies.

Strategic Communications

Strategic communications refers to the practice of purposefully disseminating messages to achieve specific goals or outcomes. It involves planning, coordinating, and assessing various communication approaches to inform, influence, or persuade selected audiences effectively. Critical aspects include understanding the audience, crafting compelling messages, selecting appropriate channels, and evaluating the impact of these communications. They are often used in business, politics, or military contexts for activities such as reputation management, brand positioning, campaigning, or crisis management.

Cognitive Warfare

Cognitive warfare refers to the use of information and other non-physical means to affect an adversary's perception, understanding, and decision-making processes. The goal is to shape the cognitive dimensions of conflict, including the minds of leaders, key decision-makers, and the general population. Cognitive warfare can include propaganda, psychological operations (psyops), cyber operations, deceptive narratives, disinformation campaigns, and other measures designed to manipulate beliefs, perceptions, and values. As of my knowledge cut-off in September 2021, this term's interpretation might vary and evolve with the developments in technology and strategic military thought.

“Cognitive warfare is no longer science fiction. Cognitive warfare is a fact of the modern age and everyone, whether civilian or military, is a potential target. Cognitive attacks are aimed at exploiting emotions rooted in our subconscious, bypassing our rational conscious mind. This is achieved by exploiting biases, fallacies, emotions and automatisms, but also through nanotechnology, biotechnology and information technology.”

Commander Cornelis van der Klaauw, Royal Netherlands Navy and Strategic Communications

Information Warfare

Information warfare refers to the use and management of information in a strategic or tactical context to achieve a competitive advantage over an opponent. This can involve tactics such as misinformation, propaganda, deception, hacking, surveillance, and disruption of communication systems. The goal is to diminish an adversary's ability to make decisions, gain intelligence, or communicate effectively by manipulating or denying them access to vital information.

Hybrid Warfare

Hybrid warfare is a military strategy that blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare, and cyber warfare with other influencing methods, such as fake news and foreign political interference. It aims to disrupt and disable an opponent's actions without engaging in open hostilities. This form of warfare can be used to undermine the effectiveness, credibility, or legitimacy of a political opponent rather than seeking outright victory on the battlefield.

Electronic Colonialism

"Electronic colonialism" is a term that refers to the domination or control over information technology and digital communication channels by developed countries, often at the expense of developing nations. This concept is similar to traditional forms of colonialism, but instead of physical territories being colonized, it's the digital space and mental perception through mass media, the internet, and other electronic forms which are being influenced. This can have implications for culture, politics, and economics as it might lead to cultural homogenization, perpetuate economic disparities, and possibly undermine national sovereignty. The term is used in discussions about global communication, cultural imperialism, and digital divide issues.

Information Society

An information society is a society where the creation, distribution, use, integration, and manipulation of information are significant economic, political, and cultural activities. Its main drivers are digital information and communication technologies, which have resulted in an information explosion and are leading to a shift from traditional industries that consume natural resources to knowledge-based industries that consume coded information. The defining feature of the information society is the rapid generation and sharing of information, which significantly impacts all aspects of life, including work, education, entertainment, and social relationships.

Network Society

A networked society is a social structure characterized by the use of digital information and communication technologies to link people, organizations, resources, and knowledge. It's a society where relationships are formed and tasks are accomplished through networks enabled by internet connectivity, rather than through traditional hierarchical structures or geographical proximity. This concept emphasizes the societal changes brought about by the spread of networked digital technology and increasingly pervasive digital interconnectedness.

Logical Fallacies

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument. They often occur when someone makes a conclusion based on poor or illogical reasoning. These can include errors such as jumping to conclusions, making false assumptions, using circular arguments, or allowing personal biases to influence the logic of the argument. Common types of logical fallacies include straw man, ad hominem, slippery slope, false dilemma, and appeal to authority, among others.

Straw Man Argument

A "straw man argument" is a type of logical fallacy where someone misrepresents an opponent's argument, making it easier to attack or discredit. Instead of dealing with the actual issue or argument, they knock down the "straw man" version they've created as a way of appearing to refute the original point. This can involve oversimplifying, distorting, or exaggerating the opposing view.

Ad Hominem

Ad hominem is a Latin phrase that translates to "against the man." In argumentation, it's a logical fallacy where someone attacks their opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument, instead of addressing the substance of the argument itself. It diverts the discussion from the topic at hand and turns it to personal characteristics which may not have any relevance to the debate.

Appeal to Authority

"Appeal to authority" is a type of logical fallacy where an argument is deemed true because it is made by someone perceived as an authority or expert. While experts' opinions can carry weight, it's important to note that expertise in one area doesn't necessarily qualify someone to speak definitively on other topics. Moreover, even if the expert is relevantly qualified, their statements aren't infallible and should still be subject to scrutiny. Therefore, the appeal to authority becomes a fallacy when the authority is not truly an expert in the field they're being cited on, when the authority is biased, or when the validity of the claim depends solely on the authority rather than the supporting evidence.

Slippery Slope

A "slippery slope" is a logical fallacy where one argues that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events culminating in some significant and usually negative effect. The core of the slippery slope argument is the assertion that a specific move will set in motion an unstoppable chain reaction; however, it often disregards the possibility that steps can be taken to prevent such an outcome or that all steps in the sequence are not inevitable.

Bandwagon

A "bandwagon" is a phenomenon or trend that gains popularity rapidly, often because people follow the actions or opinions of others rather than making independent decisions. It's based on the idea that if many people are doing something, it must be worthwhile or correct. The term originates from the literal bandwagon, a wagon carrying a band in a parade, which people would join for the excitement or to be part of the popular event. In various fields such as politics, fashion, or social media, this concept refers to people 'jumping on the bandwagon' by adopting popular trends or ideas.

Appeal to Ignorance

"Appeal to ignorance," also known as argumentum ad ignorantiam, is a logical fallacy where one person asserts that a claim is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa. This fallacy relies on the assumption that something must be accepted if it can't be proven otherwise, ignoring that the burden of proof lies with the person making the claim, not with the one disputing it.

False Dilemna

A false dilemma, also known as a false dichotomy or either/or fallacy, is a type of logical fallacy that involves presenting two opposing views, options, or outcomes as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist. It oversimplifies complex issues into an either-or choice, leading to potentially misleading conclusions.

Hasty Generalisation

A hasty generalisation is a logical fallacy in which someone makes a broad conclusion based on a small or insufficient sample size. This often leads to stereotypes, biased judgments, and misconceptions because it doesn't take into account all possible variables and complexities. It's essentially an error in reasoning that involves jumping to conclusions without adequate evidence.

Red Herring

A "red herring" is a term used to describe a misleading or distracting element or argument in a discussion. It refers to information that is intended to divert attention away from the main issue or problem, often to avoid answering a question directly or to steer the conversation in a different direction. The term originates from the practice of using a smoked herring, which is red and has a strong smell, to distract hunting dogs from their trail.

Appeal to Tradition

Appeal to tradition is a type of logical fallacy where one argues that something should continue to be done the way it has always been done in the past, simply because it has always been done that way. This argument often dismisses new ideas, innovations, or evidence-based improvements on the basis that the old ways are superior, without necessarily providing rational justification for this belief. It essentially equates tradition with correctness or superiority.

Controlled Opposition

"Controlled opposition" is a strategy in which a group or individual is covertly controlled or influenced by another group or institution, to control or direct dissent towards predetermined outcomes. This can be done to create the illusion of debate, distract from important issues, or discredit or dilute alternative perspectives. The term is often used in political contexts, but it can apply in other areas as well.

Sock Puppet

In the context of Internet communication, a sock puppet is a false identity created by a person or entity to manipulate or deceive others. It's often used to promote, defend or create the illusion of support for particular views, products, or people, or to artificially inflate the reputation or credibility of an individual or organization.

Limited Hangout

A "limited hangout" is a public relations or propaganda strategy that involves the release of previously hidden information to prevent a greater exposure or revelation. It’s often used when an organization or individual is trying to manage or divert attention away from a larger, more damaging issue. The term originated from the Watergate scandal during Richard Nixon's presidency in the United States.

“A LIMITED HANGOUT is a phrase used in the intelligence community to describe situations where leaking or revealing parts of the truth operates to control the public narrative. Manipulative partial disclosure.”

Fake News

"Fake news" refers to misinformation or disinformation presented as true news. It often has the aim of spreading false information for various reasons, such as manipulating public opinion, causing confusion, or discrediting individuals or groups. Fake news can be propagated through traditional media outlets but is especially prevalent on social media platforms due to their reach and speed of dissemination.

Disinformation

Disinformation is false information that's deliberately created and spread to deceive or mislead. It differs from misinformation, which refers to any false information regardless of intent. Disinformation is often used in contexts such as politics, advertising, propaganda, and warfare, aiming to influence public opinion or obscure the truth.

Misinformation

Misinformation is false or inaccurate information, especially that which is deliberately intended to deceive. Unlike disinformation, which implies an intent to deceive, misinformation can be spread unknowingly or without the intention to cause harm.

Conspiracy Theorist

A conspiracy theorist is a person who propounds or believes in conspiracy theories. Conspiracy theories are explanatory propositions that suggest events, conditions, or phenomena are the result of secret, often malevolent, actions by groups or individuals, rather than natural or overt processes. These theories often reject mainstream or official explanations for those events and frequently revolve around perceived attempts to conceal the 'true' reasons behind them.

Terrorist

A terrorist is a person who uses unlawful violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political, ideological, or religious aims. These acts of violence are typically carried out in an organized manner to influence or coerce governments or societies.

Alternatively, terrorists are usually small groups of fanatics that believe in a deeply unpopular ideology and then use fear-based psychological warfare to bully society or their enemies abroad into giving them concessions instead of relying on open warfare.

Bad Jacketing

"Bad jacketing" is a term originating from counterintelligence practices and is also used in activism communities to describe the act of creating suspicion or mistrust around an individual, typically by labelling them as an informant or spy without evidence. This can lead to their isolation or expulsion from a group and effectively undermines group solidarity. The term is often associated with tactics employed by law enforcement or intelligence agencies to disrupt social or political movements.

Gaslighting

Gaslighting is a form of psychological manipulation in which a person or group makes someone question their sanity, perception of reality, or memories. It may involve denying the victim's experience, contradicting facts, or belittling the victim's feelings and thoughts, creating a high level of doubt and confusion. The term originates from the 1938 play (and later 1944 film adaptation) "Gas Light," where a husband manipulates his wife into believing she is losing her mind.

Trolling

"Trolling" is an internet term referring to the act of deliberately posting inflammatory, irrelevant, or offensive comments or messages on the internet to provoke, disrupt, or upset others or to trigger an emotional response for amusement. It's often carried out in online communities such as forums, chat rooms, or comment sections of websites.

Psywar

"Psywar" is short for psychological warfare, which is the use of propaganda, threats, and other psychological techniques to mislead, intimidate, demoralize, or otherwise influence the thinking or behaviour of an opponent. This can be employed during wartime, in political campaigns, or in other contentious situations where one party wants to gain a psychological advantage.

Psyops

"Psyops" is short for psychological operations. It refers to the use of propaganda and other psychological techniques to influence people's minds, emotions, motives, reasoning, and ultimately their behaviour. This term is often used in the context of warfare and intelligence operations, where these tactics are employed to demoralize enemies, support allies, or persuade neutrals.

Weaponisation

The term "weaponisation" refers to the process of adapting something for use as a weapon or using it in a way that can cause harm or damage. This could involve physical items, such as turning a simple tool into a weapon, or more abstract elements, like data, information, or even space. For example, the weaponisation of social media refers to its use to spread disinformation, incite violence, or otherwise harm individuals or societies.

Propaganda

Propaganda is a method of communication, often biased or misleading, used to influence people's attitudes, beliefs, and actions towards specific political, ideological, or commercial objectives. It can be disseminated through various media, including speeches, books, films, music, memes, and social media posts. The intent is to shape perceptions or manipulate behaviour by appealing to emotions, fears, prejudices, or values, rather than engaging in rational argumentation.

Echo Chamber

An "echo chamber" is a term used to describe a situation in which beliefs are amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition inside a closed system and insulated from rebuttal. In an echo chamber, differing views are censored, disallowed, or otherwise underrepresented. This often refers to situations where people only engage with information that confirms their existing opinions, such as on social media platforms or news outlets catering to specific political ideologies.

Strategic Communications

Strategic communications refers to the practice of purposefully disseminating messages to achieve specific goals or outcomes. It involves planning, coordinating, and assessing various communication approaches to inform, influence, or persuade selected audiences effectively. Critical aspects include understanding the audience, crafting compelling messages, selecting appropriate channels, and evaluating the impact of these communications. They are often used in business, politics, or military contexts for activities such as reputation management, brand positioning, campaigning, or crisis management.

Cognitive Warfare

Cognitive warfare refers to the use of information and other non-physical means to affect an adversary's perception, understanding, and decision-making processes. The goal is to shape the cognitive dimensions of conflict, including the minds of leaders, key decision-makers, and the general population. Cognitive warfare can include propaganda, psychological operations (psyops), cyber operations, deceptive narratives, disinformation campaigns, and other measures designed to manipulate beliefs, perceptions, and values. As of my knowledge cut-off in September 2021, this term's interpretation might vary and evolve with the developments in technology and strategic military thought.

“Cognitive warfare is no longer science fiction. Cognitive warfare is a fact of the modern age and everyone, whether civilian or military, is a potential target. Cognitive attacks are aimed at exploiting emotions rooted in our subconscious, bypassing our rational conscious mind. This is achieved by exploiting biases, fallacies, emotions and automatisms, but also through nanotechnology, biotechnology and information technology.”

Commander Cornelis van der Klaauw, Royal Netherlands Navy and Strategic Communications

Information Warfare

Information warfare refers to the use and management of information in a strategic or tactical context to achieve a competitive advantage over an opponent. This can involve tactics such as misinformation, propaganda, deception, hacking, surveillance, and disruption of communication systems. The goal is to diminish an adversary's ability to make decisions, gain intelligence, or communicate effectively by manipulating or denying them access to vital information.

Hybrid Warfare

Hybrid warfare is a military strategy that blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare, and cyber warfare with other influencing methods, such as fake news and foreign political interference. It aims to disrupt and disable an opponent's actions without engaging in open hostilities. This form of warfare can be used to undermine the effectiveness, credibility, or legitimacy of a political opponent rather than seeking outright victory on the battlefield.

Electronic Colonialism

"Electronic colonialism" is a term that refers to the domination or control over information technology and digital communication channels by developed countries, often at the expense of developing nations. This concept is similar to traditional forms of colonialism, but instead of physical territories being colonized, it's the digital space and mental perception through mass media, the internet, and other electronic forms which are being influenced. This can have implications for culture, politics, and economics as it might lead to cultural homogenization, perpetuate economic disparities, and possibly undermine national sovereignty. The term is used in discussions about global communication, cultural imperialism, and digital divide issues.

Information Society

An information society is a society where the creation, distribution, use, integration, and manipulation of information are significant economic, political, and cultural activities. Its main drivers are digital information and communication technologies, which have resulted in an information explosion and are leading to a shift from traditional industries that consume natural resources to knowledge-based industries that consume coded information. The defining feature of the information society is the rapid generation and sharing of information, which significantly impacts all aspects of life, including work, education, entertainment, and social relationships.

Network Society

A networked society is a social structure characterized by the use of digital information and communication technologies to link people, organizations, resources, and knowledge. It's a society where relationships are formed and tasks are accomplished through networks enabled by internet connectivity, rather than through traditional hierarchical structures or geographical proximity. This concept emphasizes the societal changes brought about by the spread of networked digital technology and increasingly pervasive digital interconnectedness.

Logical Fallacies

Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that invalidate an argument. They often occur when someone makes a conclusion based on poor or illogical reasoning. These can include errors such as jumping to conclusions, making false assumptions, using circular arguments, or allowing personal biases to influence the logic of the argument. Common types of logical fallacies include straw man, ad hominem, slippery slope, false dilemma, and appeal to authority, among others.

Straw Man Argument

A "straw man argument" is a type of logical fallacy where someone misrepresents an opponent's argument, making it easier to attack or discredit. Instead of dealing with the actual issue or argument, they knock down the "straw man" version they've created as a way of appearing to refute the original point. This can involve oversimplifying, distorting, or exaggerating the opposing view.

Ad Hominem

Ad hominem is a Latin phrase that translates to "against the man." In argumentation, it's a logical fallacy where someone attacks their opponent's character or personal traits in an attempt to undermine their argument, instead of addressing the substance of the argument itself. It diverts the discussion from the topic at hand and turns it to personal characteristics which may not have any relevance to the debate.

Appeal to Authority

"Appeal to authority" is a type of logical fallacy where an argument is deemed true because it is made by someone perceived as an authority or expert. While experts' opinions can carry weight, it's important to note that expertise in one area doesn't necessarily qualify someone to speak definitively on other topics. Moreover, even if the expert is relevantly qualified, their statements aren't infallible and should still be subject to scrutiny. Therefore, the appeal to authority becomes a fallacy when the authority is not truly an expert in the field they're being cited on, when the authority is biased, or when the validity of the claim depends solely on the authority rather than the supporting evidence.

Slippery Slope

A "slippery slope" is a logical fallacy where one argues that a relatively small first step will inevitably lead to a chain of related events culminating in some significant and usually negative effect. The core of the slippery slope argument is the assertion that a specific move will set in motion an unstoppable chain reaction; however, it often disregards the possibility that steps can be taken to prevent such an outcome or that all steps in the sequence are not inevitable.

Bandwagon

A "bandwagon" is a phenomenon or trend that gains popularity rapidly, often because people follow the actions or opinions of others rather than making independent decisions. It's based on the idea that if many people are doing something, it must be worthwhile or correct. The term originates from the literal bandwagon, a wagon carrying a band in a parade, which people would join for the excitement or to be part of the popular event. In various fields such as politics, fashion, or social media, this concept refers to people 'jumping on the bandwagon' by adopting popular trends or ideas.

Appeal to Ignorance

"Appeal to ignorance," also known as argumentum ad ignorantiam, is a logical fallacy where one person asserts that a claim is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa. This fallacy relies on the assumption that something must be accepted if it can't be proven otherwise, ignoring that the burden of proof lies with the person making the claim, not with the one disputing it.

False Dilemna

A false dilemma, also known as a false dichotomy or either/or fallacy, is a type of logical fallacy that involves presenting two opposing views, options, or outcomes as the only possibilities, when in fact more possibilities exist. It oversimplifies complex issues into an either-or choice, leading to potentially misleading conclusions.

Hasty Generalisation

A hasty generalisation is a logical fallacy in which someone makes a broad conclusion based on a small or insufficient sample size. This often leads to stereotypes, biased judgments, and misconceptions because it doesn't take into account all possible variables and complexities. It's essentially an error in reasoning that involves jumping to conclusions without adequate evidence.

Red Herring

A "red herring" is a term used to describe a misleading or distracting element or argument in a discussion. It refers to information that is intended to divert attention away from the main issue or problem, often to avoid answering a question directly or to steer the conversation in a different direction. The term originates from the practice of using a smoked herring, which is red and has a strong smell, to distract hunting dogs from their trail.

Appeal to Tradition

Appeal to tradition is a type of logical fallacy where one argues that something should continue to be done the way it has always been done in the past, simply because it has always been done that way. This argument often dismisses new ideas, innovations, or evidence-based improvements on the basis that the old ways are superior, without necessarily providing rational justification for this belief. It essentially equates tradition with correctness or superiority.