From Virtual NPC to Intelligent Agent: How does the AI-driven game world subvert reality?
I. From Tic - Tac - Toe to El Dorado: The Evolutionary Path of AI in Games1952: "OXO Tic - Tac - Toe" Opens the Door to AI - based Games The earliest intersection of AI and video games can be traced back to 1952. "OXO Tic - Tac - Toe" developed by A.S. Douglas was the first game driven by AI rules. Although this AI could only respond to preset rules, it laid the foundation for the future development of AI in games. Its static nature revealed that early AI could only passively respond, lacking...
Hyperliquid Ecosystem Mining Guide
This guide delves into the evolving mining strategies within the HyperEVM ecosystem, including their development trajectory, who is most likely to earn rewards, and how to position yourself during this early phase. The following content has been reorganized for clarity: Unless you've been completely disconnected from the crypto sphere, you've likely noticed: Hyperliquid is everywhere. It's one of the few projects that executed its TGE strategy flawlessly, not only generating substantial wealt...
Market Plummets, But the 'Ice' of Regulation Is Melting
In the current market environment fraught with anxiety, recent actions by U.S. financial regulators suggest a softening of the formerly hardline stance on cryptocurrencies, with the 'ice' of hostile regulation from the previous administration beginning to melt. Unlike the gradually warming temperatures, the cryptocurrency market has been on a downward spiral since Bitcoin fell below $90,000 on February 25th. Around 10:50 AM today, Bitcoin even broke through the $80,000 mark, reaching a new lo...
Support Harper
Bitcoin’s “SegWit” Trilogy in One Cheat-Sheet
<100 subscribers
From Virtual NPC to Intelligent Agent: How does the AI-driven game world subvert reality?
I. From Tic - Tac - Toe to El Dorado: The Evolutionary Path of AI in Games1952: "OXO Tic - Tac - Toe" Opens the Door to AI - based Games The earliest intersection of AI and video games can be traced back to 1952. "OXO Tic - Tac - Toe" developed by A.S. Douglas was the first game driven by AI rules. Although this AI could only respond to preset rules, it laid the foundation for the future development of AI in games. Its static nature revealed that early AI could only passively respond, lacking...
Hyperliquid Ecosystem Mining Guide
This guide delves into the evolving mining strategies within the HyperEVM ecosystem, including their development trajectory, who is most likely to earn rewards, and how to position yourself during this early phase. The following content has been reorganized for clarity: Unless you've been completely disconnected from the crypto sphere, you've likely noticed: Hyperliquid is everywhere. It's one of the few projects that executed its TGE strategy flawlessly, not only generating substantial wealt...
Market Plummets, But the 'Ice' of Regulation Is Melting
In the current market environment fraught with anxiety, recent actions by U.S. financial regulators suggest a softening of the formerly hardline stance on cryptocurrencies, with the 'ice' of hostile regulation from the previous administration beginning to melt. Unlike the gradually warming temperatures, the cryptocurrency market has been on a downward spiral since Bitcoin fell below $90,000 on February 25th. Around 10:50 AM today, Bitcoin even broke through the $80,000 mark, reaching a new lo...
0. 30-Second TL;DR
SegWit v1 (2017) – move signatures out of 1 MB block → 4 MB weight, fix malleability, enable Lightning.
SegWit v2 = Taproot (2021) – new sig algorithm (Schnorr), Merkelise scripts (MAST), shrink multi-sig, hide complex contracts, make Ordinals possible.
SegWit v3 = Taproot Assets (2024-25) – keep asset data off-chain in “Universes”, anchor only proofs on-chain, give assets their own VM (TAP-VM) that can evolve toward Turing-complete while Bitcoin stays unchanged.
→ Path: pure size boost → prettier & smarter Bitcoin scripts → infinite scale & programmability outside the base layer.
1. Why “Separate the Witness” at All?
Old problem: TX signatures sat inside the transaction →
Anyone could flip a byte (malleability) and change TX-ID → broke 2nd-layer protocols.
Sig data counted against 1 MB → artificial ceiling.
No privacy for multi-conditional scripts (all conditions visible).
SegWit’s universal idea: signatures are only “witnesses” – move them to an add-on zone that:
does not enter TX-ID calculation,
is still committed to in the block (merkle path into coin-base),
can have its own size limit.
2. SegWit v1 (BIP 141/143/144) – “Just Make Room”
Activated: block 481 824, Aug-2017
New stuff:
Weight formula: 3 × base-data + total-data ≤ 4 M → ≈ 1.7 MB typical, 4 MB worst-case.
P2WPKH / P2WSH addresses (bech32, “bc1…”) – lower fees, case-insensitive, no ambiguity.
wTXID – parallel ID that includes witness; miners build a second merkle tree rooted in coin-base.
Side-effect: script-version byte → upgrade by incrementing “witness version” (v0 → v1 later for Taproot).
Result: LightningNetwork goes live, fee market cools down, base-layer stays conservative.
3. SegWit v2 = Taproot (BIP 340/341/342) – “Make Smart Contracts Look Dumb”
Proposed: Jan-2020 Active: block 709 632, Nov-2021
3.1 Schnorr (BIP 340)
64-byte sigs vs 70-72 ECDSA → 4 % saving, but key-aggregation is the prize.
n-of-n multisig → single pubkey + single sig on-chain → big fee win + privacy win (can’t distinguish 1-of-1 from 11-of-15).
Linear maths → batch verification ~3× faster, adaptor-sigs, MuSig2, FROST, etc.
3.2 MAST (BIP 341)
Instead of dumping whole script in spend, only executed branch is revealed.
All possible scripts hashed into a Merkle tree; root = Taproot pubkey tweak.
→ Smaller witness, no malleability, privacy boost (unused conditions stay hidden).
3.3 Tapscript (BIP 342)
Upgraded op-codes (OP_SUCCESSx) → future soft-forks just assign meaning.
Removes 10 000-byte script size limit → big scripts possible (basis for Ordinals in-script data).
New sighash modes (SIGHASH_DEFAULT, ANY_PREVOUT) → enable Eltoo, vaults, etc.
First cultural explosion: Casey Rodarmor uses script-path to stuff JPEG bytes inside Taproot scripts → Ordinals → BRC-20, recursive inscriptions, 50 MB blocks full of cat photos.
4. SegWit v3 = Taproot Assets – “Take It Off-Chain, Keep the Audit Trail”
Birth: Lightning-Labs “Taro” white-paper, Dec-2021 Production: tapd v0.6.0, Jun-2025
4.1 Design Philosophy
Bitcoin block = commitment layer only (tiny 32-byte Merkle root).
Asset rules, metadata, supply tree live in Universes – arbitrary data stores (could be IPFS, cloud, or your laptop).
Trust-model: “Don’t trust, verify” – anyone can fetch the Universe, recompute the sparse-Merkle-sum-tree root, and check it matches on-chain root.
4.2 Core Pieces
MS-SMT (Merkle-Sum Sparse Merkle Tree) – every leaf is a vUTXO; each parent stores sum(amount) → detect inflation instantly.
Asset Script Key – Taproot pubkey that controls asset transfer (separate from BTC UTXO key).
Split Commitments – when you split a 100-unit token, only one branch needs the full witness; siblings just carry proof-of-split → saves space.
TAP-VM – stripped-down Bitcoin VM + asset op-codes; lives outside consensus, so can be upgraded to Turing-complete without risking base layer.
4.3 What You Can Build Today
Stable-coin (USD-asset) that rides over Lightning → instant, sub-sat fees.
TrustlessSwap – atomic BTC ↔️ asset swap without cross-chain bridges.
BTCFi – lending markets use BTC as collateral, assets as borrowables, all settled on Bitcoin graph.
4.4 Road-map Hints
Lightning-Labs: “TAP-VM v2” exploring WASM → near-Turing while keeping fraud-proof mechanism.
If WASM VM ships, expect Uniswap-style AMMs, perpetuals, even zk-rollups settled to Bitcoin without changing Bitcoin.
5. Putting It Together – The 3-Step Bitcoin Evolution
Upgrade | Year | Where Data Lives | What Got Bigger | What Got Smarter | Consumer Face |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SegWit v1 | 2017 | Witness attached to TX | 1 MB → 4 MB weight | fixed malleability | Lightning wallets |
Taproot v2 | 2021 | Still on-chain, but pruned | same block, more bytes for logic | Schnorr + MAST + big scripts | Ordinals, BRC-20 |
Taproot Assets v3 | 2025 | Off-chain Universes; 32 B root on-chain | infinite (theoretical) | separate VM, future Turing | Stable-coins, BTCFi, gaming assets |
6. Key Take-aways for Builders & Investors
Soft-forks only: each version activated without a chain-split → Bitcoin conservatism intact.
Address adoption: bech32 (v0) → P2TR (v1) → TAs (v1 + off-chain) – wallets must upgrade sequentially.
Fee economics: witness data discounted → complex scripts / big files cost less per byte than raw financial TXs → incentives align to push creativity into witness or outside chain.
Security budget: off-chain assets still need on-chain settlements → more TX demand → higher long-term fees for miners.
Watch the VM race: whoever makes TAP-VM ** Turing-complete first** (without breaking fraud-proof simplicity) wins the Bitcoin L2 jackpot.
Conclusion:
SegWit’s trilogy turned Bitcoin from “digital gold only” into a three-layer cake:
bullet-proof settlement,
programmable scripts,
boundless asset universe anchored to it.
The upgrades are additive, not replacement – you can still use 2009-style pay-to-pub-key today. But if you want to mint a yield-bearing EM stable-coin, trade it instantly over Lightning, and settle back to BTC – all secured by Bitcoin’s hash-power – the roadmap is already in the code.
0. 30-Second TL;DR
SegWit v1 (2017) – move signatures out of 1 MB block → 4 MB weight, fix malleability, enable Lightning.
SegWit v2 = Taproot (2021) – new sig algorithm (Schnorr), Merkelise scripts (MAST), shrink multi-sig, hide complex contracts, make Ordinals possible.
SegWit v3 = Taproot Assets (2024-25) – keep asset data off-chain in “Universes”, anchor only proofs on-chain, give assets their own VM (TAP-VM) that can evolve toward Turing-complete while Bitcoin stays unchanged.
→ Path: pure size boost → prettier & smarter Bitcoin scripts → infinite scale & programmability outside the base layer.
1. Why “Separate the Witness” at All?
Old problem: TX signatures sat inside the transaction →
Anyone could flip a byte (malleability) and change TX-ID → broke 2nd-layer protocols.
Sig data counted against 1 MB → artificial ceiling.
No privacy for multi-conditional scripts (all conditions visible).
SegWit’s universal idea: signatures are only “witnesses” – move them to an add-on zone that:
does not enter TX-ID calculation,
is still committed to in the block (merkle path into coin-base),
can have its own size limit.
2. SegWit v1 (BIP 141/143/144) – “Just Make Room”
Activated: block 481 824, Aug-2017
New stuff:
Weight formula: 3 × base-data + total-data ≤ 4 M → ≈ 1.7 MB typical, 4 MB worst-case.
P2WPKH / P2WSH addresses (bech32, “bc1…”) – lower fees, case-insensitive, no ambiguity.
wTXID – parallel ID that includes witness; miners build a second merkle tree rooted in coin-base.
Side-effect: script-version byte → upgrade by incrementing “witness version” (v0 → v1 later for Taproot).
Result: LightningNetwork goes live, fee market cools down, base-layer stays conservative.
3. SegWit v2 = Taproot (BIP 340/341/342) – “Make Smart Contracts Look Dumb”
Proposed: Jan-2020 Active: block 709 632, Nov-2021
3.1 Schnorr (BIP 340)
64-byte sigs vs 70-72 ECDSA → 4 % saving, but key-aggregation is the prize.
n-of-n multisig → single pubkey + single sig on-chain → big fee win + privacy win (can’t distinguish 1-of-1 from 11-of-15).
Linear maths → batch verification ~3× faster, adaptor-sigs, MuSig2, FROST, etc.
3.2 MAST (BIP 341)
Instead of dumping whole script in spend, only executed branch is revealed.
All possible scripts hashed into a Merkle tree; root = Taproot pubkey tweak.
→ Smaller witness, no malleability, privacy boost (unused conditions stay hidden).
3.3 Tapscript (BIP 342)
Upgraded op-codes (OP_SUCCESSx) → future soft-forks just assign meaning.
Removes 10 000-byte script size limit → big scripts possible (basis for Ordinals in-script data).
New sighash modes (SIGHASH_DEFAULT, ANY_PREVOUT) → enable Eltoo, vaults, etc.
First cultural explosion: Casey Rodarmor uses script-path to stuff JPEG bytes inside Taproot scripts → Ordinals → BRC-20, recursive inscriptions, 50 MB blocks full of cat photos.
4. SegWit v3 = Taproot Assets – “Take It Off-Chain, Keep the Audit Trail”
Birth: Lightning-Labs “Taro” white-paper, Dec-2021 Production: tapd v0.6.0, Jun-2025
4.1 Design Philosophy
Bitcoin block = commitment layer only (tiny 32-byte Merkle root).
Asset rules, metadata, supply tree live in Universes – arbitrary data stores (could be IPFS, cloud, or your laptop).
Trust-model: “Don’t trust, verify” – anyone can fetch the Universe, recompute the sparse-Merkle-sum-tree root, and check it matches on-chain root.
4.2 Core Pieces
MS-SMT (Merkle-Sum Sparse Merkle Tree) – every leaf is a vUTXO; each parent stores sum(amount) → detect inflation instantly.
Asset Script Key – Taproot pubkey that controls asset transfer (separate from BTC UTXO key).
Split Commitments – when you split a 100-unit token, only one branch needs the full witness; siblings just carry proof-of-split → saves space.
TAP-VM – stripped-down Bitcoin VM + asset op-codes; lives outside consensus, so can be upgraded to Turing-complete without risking base layer.
4.3 What You Can Build Today
Stable-coin (USD-asset) that rides over Lightning → instant, sub-sat fees.
TrustlessSwap – atomic BTC ↔️ asset swap without cross-chain bridges.
BTCFi – lending markets use BTC as collateral, assets as borrowables, all settled on Bitcoin graph.
4.4 Road-map Hints
Lightning-Labs: “TAP-VM v2” exploring WASM → near-Turing while keeping fraud-proof mechanism.
If WASM VM ships, expect Uniswap-style AMMs, perpetuals, even zk-rollups settled to Bitcoin without changing Bitcoin.
5. Putting It Together – The 3-Step Bitcoin Evolution
Upgrade | Year | Where Data Lives | What Got Bigger | What Got Smarter | Consumer Face |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SegWit v1 | 2017 | Witness attached to TX | 1 MB → 4 MB weight | fixed malleability | Lightning wallets |
Taproot v2 | 2021 | Still on-chain, but pruned | same block, more bytes for logic | Schnorr + MAST + big scripts | Ordinals, BRC-20 |
Taproot Assets v3 | 2025 | Off-chain Universes; 32 B root on-chain | infinite (theoretical) | separate VM, future Turing | Stable-coins, BTCFi, gaming assets |
6. Key Take-aways for Builders & Investors
Soft-forks only: each version activated without a chain-split → Bitcoin conservatism intact.
Address adoption: bech32 (v0) → P2TR (v1) → TAs (v1 + off-chain) – wallets must upgrade sequentially.
Fee economics: witness data discounted → complex scripts / big files cost less per byte than raw financial TXs → incentives align to push creativity into witness or outside chain.
Security budget: off-chain assets still need on-chain settlements → more TX demand → higher long-term fees for miners.
Watch the VM race: whoever makes TAP-VM ** Turing-complete first** (without breaking fraud-proof simplicity) wins the Bitcoin L2 jackpot.
Conclusion:
SegWit’s trilogy turned Bitcoin from “digital gold only” into a three-layer cake:
bullet-proof settlement,
programmable scripts,
boundless asset universe anchored to it.
The upgrades are additive, not replacement – you can still use 2009-style pay-to-pub-key today. But if you want to mint a yield-bearing EM stable-coin, trade it instantly over Lightning, and settle back to BTC – all secured by Bitcoin’s hash-power – the roadmap is already in the code.
Share Dialog
Share Dialog
No comments yet