Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary sociologist whose ideas radically reshaped $20^\text{th}$-century politics and intellectual thought. As a key founder of modern sociology, Marx provided a comprehensive critique of the development and inherent contradictions of industrial capitalism. His foundational concepts are Historical Materialism (the idea that economic structures determine society) and the theory of inevitable Class Conflict (the ceaseless struggle between those who own and those who labor).

Marx’s methodology, Historical Materialism, argues that the primary engine driving all human history and social change is the need to produce the material necessities of life—the economic mode of production.

• The Base: This is the economic foundation of society. It consists of the Forces of Production (technology, raw materials, and tools) and the Relations of Production (the social relationships governing property ownership, particularly who owns the means of production).

• The Superstructure: This includes all non-economic institutions, such as the legal system, political government, religion, philosophy, and culture.

• The Relationship: Marx argued that the Base is the determining factor; the economic structure shapes and maintains the Superstructure. For example, laws are created to protect the property relations that define the economic base. Therefore, to change society, one must fundamentally change the economic base.

For Marx, history is a narrative of escalating struggle between opposing social classes, each defined by its relationship to the means of production. In the era of capitalism, this conflict is centered on two fundamental classes:

• The Bourgeoisie (The Owners): The capitalists who own and control the means of production (factories, land, capital). Their primary objective is to maximize profit.

• The Proletariat (The Workers): The vast majority who own nothing but their own ability to labor (labor power), which they must sell to the bourgeoisie for a wage.

Marx argued that the relationship between these two classes is inherently exploitative under capitalism:

• Surplus Value: The value of a commodity is created by the labor of the worker. However, the worker is paid a wage that is less than the full value their labor creates. The difference—the unpaid labor—is the surplus value, which the capitalist appropriates as profit.

• Alienation: The industrial system leads to profound alienation for the worker—separation from the product they create (which they do not own), from the act of labor (which is controlled and repetitive), from their fellow workers (as they compete in the labor market), and ultimately, from their own human potential (species-being).

Marx predicted that the inherent contradictions of capitalism—such as cycles of economic crisis and the increasing misery of the proletariat—would inevitably lead to its demise.

• Class Consciousness: The exploited proletariat would develop class consciousness (an awareness of their collective identity and shared oppression) and rise in a political revolution to seize the means of production.

• The Goal: The revolution would ultimately establish a classless, stateless society—Communism—where the means of production are collectively owned by the community, and the principle of distribution is "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need."

Marx’s analysis of capitalism’s structure, its tendencies toward crisis, and his concepts of exploitation and alienation remain central to critical theory, political science, and economic history. His theoretical framework has been one of the most significant forces shaping $20^\text{th}$-century political movements and intellectual debates.

In Conclusion: Karl Marx developed the doctrine of Historical Materialism, asserting that the fundamental economic base determines society's political and cultural institutions. He posited that history is driven by inevitable Class Conflict—the antagonism between the owning Bourgeoisie and the working Proletariat—a struggle that he believed would culminate in a revolutionary transition to a classless, communal society.

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary sociologist whose ideas radically reshaped $20^\text{th}$-century politics and intellectual thought. As a key founder of modern sociology, Marx provided a comprehensive critique of the development and inherent contradictions of industrial capitalism. His foundational concepts are Historical Materialism (the idea that economic structures determine society) and the theory of inevitable Class Conflict (the ceaseless struggle between those who own and those who labor).

Marx’s methodology, Historical Materialism, argues that the primary engine driving all human history and social change is the need to produce the material necessities of life—the economic mode of production.

• The Base: This is the economic foundation of society. It consists of the Forces of Production (technology, raw materials, and tools) and the Relations of Production (the social relationships governing property ownership, particularly who owns the means of production).

• The Superstructure: This includes all non-economic institutions, such as the legal system, political government, religion, philosophy, and culture.

• The Relationship: Marx argued that the Base is the determining factor; the economic structure shapes and maintains the Superstructure. For example, laws are created to protect the property relations that define the economic base. Therefore, to change society, one must fundamentally change the economic base.

For Marx, history is a narrative of escalating struggle between opposing social classes, each defined by its relationship to the means of production. In the era of capitalism, this conflict is centered on two fundamental classes:

• The Bourgeoisie (The Owners): The capitalists who own and control the means of production (factories, land, capital). Their primary objective is to maximize profit.

• The Proletariat (The Workers): The vast majority who own nothing but their own ability to labor (labor power), which they must sell to the bourgeoisie for a wage.

Marx argued that the relationship between these two classes is inherently exploitative under capitalism:

• Surplus Value: The value of a commodity is created by the labor of the worker. However, the worker is paid a wage that is less than the full value their labor creates. The difference—the unpaid labor—is the surplus value, which the capitalist appropriates as profit.

• Alienation: The industrial system leads to profound alienation for the worker—separation from the product they create (which they do not own), from the act of labor (which is controlled and repetitive), from their fellow workers (as they compete in the labor market), and ultimately, from their own human potential (species-being).

Marx predicted that the inherent contradictions of capitalism—such as cycles of economic crisis and the increasing misery of the proletariat—would inevitably lead to its demise.

• Class Consciousness: The exploited proletariat would develop class consciousness (an awareness of their collective identity and shared oppression) and rise in a political revolution to seize the means of production.

• The Goal: The revolution would ultimately establish a classless, stateless society—Communism—where the means of production are collectively owned by the community, and the principle of distribution is "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need."

Marx’s analysis of capitalism’s structure, its tendencies toward crisis, and his concepts of exploitation and alienation remain central to critical theory, political science, and economic history. His theoretical framework has been one of the most significant forces shaping $20^\text{th}$-century political movements and intellectual debates.

In Conclusion: Karl Marx developed the doctrine of Historical Materialism, asserting that the fundamental economic base determines society's political and cultural institutions. He posited that history is driven by inevitable Class Conflict—the antagonism between the owning Bourgeoisie and the working Proletariat—a struggle that he believed would culminate in a revolutionary transition to a classless, communal society.