Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and sociologist whose ideas generated one of the most powerful and transformative political movements in modern history. Alongside Émile Durkheim and Max Weber (Articles 186, 185), he is considered a principal founder of sociology. Marx's work provided a comprehensive, critical analysis of the development of capitalism, centered on two core concepts: Historical Materialism (the idea that the economic base drives social change) and the theory of pervasive Class Conflict (the inevitable struggle between owners and workers).

Marx’s methodology, Historical Materialism, argues that the primary driving force of human history and social change is material conditions—specifically, how society organizes itself to produce the necessities of life.

• The Base: This is the economic foundation of society, comprising the Forces of Production (technology, raw materials, labor) and the Relations of Production (the relationship between people and property, primarily who owns the means of production).

• The Superstructure: This is the non-economic part of society, including the legal system, politics, religion, culture, and philosophy.

• The Relationship: Marx argued that the Base determines or shapes the Superstructure. The economic structure dictates the legal and political systems that protect it. Therefore, to understand a society's culture or politics, one must first analyze its mode of production.

Marx saw history as a series of distinct economic eras (primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism), each defined by a struggle between two primary, opposing social classes. In the capitalist era, this conflict is defined by the relationship to the means of production (factories, land, machinery):

• The Bourgeoisie (The Owners): Those who own the means of production (capitalists). Their goal is to maximize profit.

• The Proletariat (The Workers): Those who own nothing but their own labor power, which they must sell for a wage to the bourgeoisie.

Marx argued that the capitalist system is built on exploitation.

• Surplus Value: The value of a product is created by the labor of the proletariat. However, the worker is paid only a fraction of that value (their wage). The difference between the value created by the worker and the wage paid to the worker is the surplus value, which is appropriated by the bourgeoisie as profit.

• Alienation: This economic arrangement leads to alienation in the proletariat—a sense of separation from the products they create, the process of work, their fellow workers, and ultimately, their own human potential.

Marx concluded that the contradictions and inherent instability (crises of overproduction, rising exploitation) of capitalism would inevitably lead to a political struggle.

• Class Consciousness: The proletariat would develop class consciousness (an awareness of their collective exploitation) and rise in a revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie.

• The Goal: The revolution would result in a classless society—Communism—where the means of production are collectively owned, and the principle guiding production is "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need."

Marx’s analysis of capitalism’s structure, crisis tendencies, and concept of alienation remain highly influential in economic, political, and sociological thought. His work forms the basis of Marxist theory and directly inspired various socialist and communist political movements throughout the $20^\text{th}$ century.

In Conclusion: Karl Marx developed the doctrine of Historical Materialism, arguing that the fundamental economic structure (the Base) of a society determines its social, political, and cultural institutions (the Superstructure). He posited that history progresses through inevitable Class Conflict—in the capitalist era, the struggle between the property-owning Bourgeoisie and the exploited working Proletariat—a conflict destined to culminate in a revolution leading to a classless, communal society.

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher, economist, and sociologist whose ideas generated one of the most powerful and transformative political movements in modern history. Alongside Émile Durkheim and Max Weber (Articles 186, 185), he is considered a principal founder of sociology. Marx's work provided a comprehensive, critical analysis of the development of capitalism, centered on two core concepts: Historical Materialism (the idea that the economic base drives social change) and the theory of pervasive Class Conflict (the inevitable struggle between owners and workers).

Marx’s methodology, Historical Materialism, argues that the primary driving force of human history and social change is material conditions—specifically, how society organizes itself to produce the necessities of life.

• The Base: This is the economic foundation of society, comprising the Forces of Production (technology, raw materials, labor) and the Relations of Production (the relationship between people and property, primarily who owns the means of production).

• The Superstructure: This is the non-economic part of society, including the legal system, politics, religion, culture, and philosophy.

• The Relationship: Marx argued that the Base determines or shapes the Superstructure. The economic structure dictates the legal and political systems that protect it. Therefore, to understand a society's culture or politics, one must first analyze its mode of production.

Marx saw history as a series of distinct economic eras (primitive communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism), each defined by a struggle between two primary, opposing social classes. In the capitalist era, this conflict is defined by the relationship to the means of production (factories, land, machinery):

• The Bourgeoisie (The Owners): Those who own the means of production (capitalists). Their goal is to maximize profit.

• The Proletariat (The Workers): Those who own nothing but their own labor power, which they must sell for a wage to the bourgeoisie.

Marx argued that the capitalist system is built on exploitation.

• Surplus Value: The value of a product is created by the labor of the proletariat. However, the worker is paid only a fraction of that value (their wage). The difference between the value created by the worker and the wage paid to the worker is the surplus value, which is appropriated by the bourgeoisie as profit.

• Alienation: This economic arrangement leads to alienation in the proletariat—a sense of separation from the products they create, the process of work, their fellow workers, and ultimately, their own human potential.

Marx concluded that the contradictions and inherent instability (crises of overproduction, rising exploitation) of capitalism would inevitably lead to a political struggle.

• Class Consciousness: The proletariat would develop class consciousness (an awareness of their collective exploitation) and rise in a revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie.

• The Goal: The revolution would result in a classless society—Communism—where the means of production are collectively owned, and the principle guiding production is "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need."

Marx’s analysis of capitalism’s structure, crisis tendencies, and concept of alienation remain highly influential in economic, political, and sociological thought. His work forms the basis of Marxist theory and directly inspired various socialist and communist political movements throughout the $20^\text{th}$ century.

In Conclusion: Karl Marx developed the doctrine of Historical Materialism, arguing that the fundamental economic structure (the Base) of a society determines its social, political, and cultural institutions (the Superstructure). He posited that history progresses through inevitable Class Conflict—in the capitalist era, the struggle between the property-owning Bourgeoisie and the exploited working Proletariat—a conflict destined to culminate in a revolution leading to a classless, communal society.